Financial statements Essay Example for Free

Financial statements Essay 1) Which of the following statements is true? 2) Notes to the financial statements include which of the following: 3) Which of the following financial statements is divided into major categories of operating, investing, and financing activities? 4) If the retained earnings account increases from the beginning of the year to the end of the year, then 5) If services are rendered on account, then 6) An investment by the stockholders in a business increases 7) Using accrual accounting, expenses are recorded and reported only: 8) A small company may be able to justify using a cash basis of accounting if they have: 9) Stockholders’ equity can be described as claims of 10) Common stock is reported on the 11) The Vintage Laundry Company purchased $6,500 worth of laundry supplies on June 2 and recorded the purchase as an asset. On June 30, an inventory of the laundry supplies indicated only $2,000 on hand. The adjusting entry that should be made by the company on June 12) On July 1 the Fisher Shoe Store paid $15,000 to Acme Realty for 6 months rent beginning July 1. Prepaid Rent was debited for the full amount. 13) Use the following data to determine the total dollar amount of assets to be classified as current assets. 14) Use the following data to calculate the current ratio. KoonceOffice Supplies Balance Sheet December 31, 2012 Cash $130,000 Accounts Payable $140,000 Prepaid Insurance 60,000 Salaries Payable 20,000 Accounts Receivable 100,000 Mortgage Payable 160,000 15) In horizontal analysis, each item is expressed as a percentage of the 16) When a change in depreciation method occurs: 17) Which of the following statements is true with respect to financial statement reporting for all cases when a company changes from one acceptable accounting method to another? 18) Which of the following would be considered a change in accounting principle? 19) From an internal control standpoint, the asset most susceptible to improper diversion and use is 20) A very small company would have the most difficulty in implementing  which of the following internal control activities? 21) The reconciliation of the cash register tape with the cash in the register is an example of 22) Deposits in transit 23) Which of the following items on a bank reconciliation would require an adjusting entry on the company’s books? 24) Notification by the bank that a deposited customer check was returned NSF requires that the company make the following adjusting entry: 25) Why do pension and mutual funds invest in debt and equity securities? 26) Which of the following is a debt security? 27) Reed Company acquires 80 Holmes 10%, 5 year, $1,000 bonds on January 1, 2012 for $82,000. This includes a brokerage commission of $2,000. The journal entry to record this investment includes a debit to 28) Reed Company acquires 80 Holmes 10%, 5 year, $1,000 bonds on January 1, 2012 for $82,000. This includes a brokerage commission of $2,000. Assume Holmes pays interest semiannually and the July 1 entry was done correctly. The journal entry at December 31, 2012 would include a credit to 29) A company that owns more than 50% of the common stock of another company is known as the 30) If a parent company has two wholly owned subsidiaries, how many legal and economic entities are there from the viewpoint of the shareholders of the parent company?

What do we learn about the role played by Curleys wife in of mice and men Essay Example for Free

What do we learn about the role played by Curleys wife in of mice and men Essay Curleys wife is a very interesting character. As the sole woman in the novel she could be said to represent her gender. However, few readers would regard her in a positive manner. Even before she appears in the novel, readers are given a negative impression of her as a sexual promiscuous character. Her role in the novel allows Steinbeck to develop hes central themes such as loneliness and dreams. In society women are terribly degraded by mens comments and actions. They are victims of prejudiced, which leads to loneliness. she got the eye goin all the time on everybody. I bet she gives the stable buck the eye. Curleys wife is never referred to anything but Curleys wife. This symbolises that she is thought of as hes property. None of the men speak very highly of her they all think in their words that she is Jail bait. This is realistic because even today we see this type of sexism occurring. Curleys wife walks the ranch as a temptress, she also hides a deep sense of loneliness behind the tramp, tart and bitch attitude she puts on. Her first outburst in crooks room shows her image. Satiday night. Everybody out doing sompin. Everbody! An what am i doin? Standin here talkin to a bunch of bindle stiffs, a nigger an a dum- dum and a lousy ol sheep, an likin it because they aint nobody else. For a young lady to be left home alone all day would send anyone in a deep state of depression. She is married to a man that gives her little attention and none of hes time. This is why I think she degrades herself. She shows little or no sign of respect for herself. She flirts with other men to keep herself entertained. Swell guy aint he? Spends all his time saying what hes gonna do to guys he dont like and he dont like no body. As a woman during the depression she has no choice but to marry someone who can support her. Society gives jobs and independence to men and women have no power. She is at the bottom of society. Her marriage to Curley is a disaster because he only cares about himself and he isnt interested in her at all. Curleys wife understands that all men think of her as an object, she uses her beauty to attract men so they will talk to her. She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward. She needs friends and people to talk to, but everyone turns her away. Curley is jealous and treats her like his possession to be guarded, she feels frustrated. Whats the matter with me? Aint I got the right to talk to nobody? Desperate to satisfy her need for belonging and love, she turns to strangers such as Lennie, the only person that she feels she can talk to. She hints at her loneliness when she says, Seems like they aint none of them cares how i gotta live, Her aggravation and frustration about being lonely is being released, and she may be free from loneliness because she has finally released most of her feelings and emotions before her death. Loneliness is a large aspect of the novel. Different characters deal with it in different ways. When Curleys wife opens up to Lennie the readers sympathise with her. Well I aint told this to nobody before This shows her inner feelings of how desperate she is in wanting a friend. She is successful in getting a person like Lennie to talk to and trust in, but from all this she had been killed by the hands of the one she trusted. Curleys wife has a dream she wants something to call her own, she wants fame, fortune and admiration. When she is talking to Lennie, alone in the barn, she recounts her obviously well told stories of her offers of fame. Coulda been in the movies an had nice clothes. She is unhappy with her husband, and his constant stories of who hes going beat up next. This brings up a very important question in the readers minds. Why did she marry Curley? I ast her if she stole it, too an she says no, so I married Curley. This shows that Curleys wife is a very stubborn character she wants everything her own way, and doesnt care what she has to sacrifice. She seems to have a deep regret that she didnt take up either of the men on their offers. This dream is important to her because it decides weather or not shes going to try again and go on in life and be a success and full fill her dream of being an actress or that she stays where she is and becomes something else. She tells Lennie of her need for affection, and how she needs to be wanted. Curleys wife does not seem at all likely to achieve her dreams. Even if she wasnt murdered, she was stuck in a rut with Curley, a rut that would have gone round and round in until he left her for a new woman, or she finally built up the courage to leave him. The first description of Curleys wife is described very differently from how Steinbeck describes her at the end of the novel. Steinbecks first description is very sharp and harsh. She had full roughed lips and wide spaced eyes, heavily made up Steinbeck describes her to be a tart; he wants the readers to think that she looks like a prostitute. When Curleys wife is murdered hes description is changed. she was very pretty, simple and her face was sweet and young. This description was given after her death, there is a hidden meaning to why I think Steinbeck did this. He wants the readers to understand that the description that was given earlier in the novel was what everyone thought of her, it was like a mask she had on. Her real personality and her real self were only discovered before she died.

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD The treatment related publications of the last twenty years places a large amount of attention on determining the most useful psychological therapy for clients with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD. The overall aim of this paper is to critically evaluate current cognitive models of PTSD and literature on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapies to treat this disorder based on these models. Definitions of PTSD The 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (APA, 1994) defines trauma as: (a) The individual experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event that involved actual or perceived threat to life or physical integrity; and (b) the individuals emotional response to this event included horror, helplessness or intense fear, Foa and Meadows (1997, p. 450). The psychological symptoms connected with PTSD are categorised into three groups of symptoms in DSM-IV: The main characteristics include re-experiencing (in the form of flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, and distressing dreams), avoidance/numbing and heightened arousal, after the person is subjected to a traumatic incident. (Foa Rothbaurn, 1992). The next group includes avoidance of stimuli trauma-reminding stimuli and symptoms of emotional numbing (Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, Perry, 1995; Litz, 1993). The final symptom group includes heightened arousal e.g. hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping and irritability (APA, 1994). Current Government Guidelines on the treatment of PTSD Determining effective and efficient treatments for PTSD has come to be seen as important due to the conditions prevalence and the many techniques and interventions available. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, NICE, reviewed the most robust outcome research and produced guidelines, to provide information and direction for the psychological management of PTSD in adult sufferers (NICE, 2005). The guidelines were developed from an independent, methodical, rigorous and multistage procedure of selecting, examining and assessing evidence for the successful treatment of PTSD. These guidelines conclude that individuals with PTSD should receive either trauma focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (TFCBT) or Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR). However, a distinction is made between single incident trauma and more complex presentations, and the guidelines suggest increasing the total number of sessions accordingly. Although the guidelines appear helpful for the tre atment of single incident PTSD, they are arguably not as informative for treatment approaches for a large group of individuals with complex PTSD. This presents difficulties for the clinician and patient in deciding the most effective therapeutic options. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most extensively studied therapy for individuals with PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997) and many studies support its efficacy in reducing symptom severity (e.g. Resick Schnicke, 1992; Foa, Rothbaurn, 1992; Foa et al., 1995; Foa Jaycox, 1996; Riggs, Murdock, 1991; Richards, Lovell, Marks, 1994; Thompson, Charlton, Kerry, Lee, Turner, 1995). However, CBT for PTSD encompasses diverse techniques. These include exposure procedures, cognitive restructuring procedures, and combinations of both these techniques. Exposure Therapy Exposure therapy is derived from the idea that imaginal exposure (IE) to the trauma or feared situation, leads to a decrease in symptoms. The theory argues enduring activation of traumatic memories result in processing of the emotional information, lessening of anxiety and assimilation of accurate memories (Foa et al., 1995). Much research has shown that treatment involving exposure therapy is effective in decreasing PTSD symptoms (e.g. Foa et al., 1999; Frueh, Turner, Beidel, Mirabella, Jones, 1996; Keane, Fairbank, Cadell, Zimmering, 1989). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdoch (1991) investigated exposure therapy, stress inoculation (a type of Anxity Management Treatment, AMT), supportive counselling, and a non-treatment group in the management of rape-related PTSD. Clinical measures of symptoms and standardized psychometric tests were examined before and after treatment as well as at a three month follow-up. The stress inoculation intervention showed superior results to the counselling and non-treatment conditions at post-test. However, at the follow-up, the individuals participating in exposure therapy showed more improvements of PTSD symptoms than individuals in the other groups. Research has investigated the efficiency of exposure therapy compared to different methods of treatment. For instance, exposure therapy and cognitive therapy were investigated by Tarrier et al. (1999) for the management of individuals with PTSD arising from various traumatic incidents. Although both approaches demonstrated a noteworthy decrease in PTSD symptoms that was still present at 6-months follow up there was no non-treatment control against which these two treatments could be evaluated. Similarly, Foa et al. (1999) compared exposure therapy to AMT and then combined the two treatments. These three groups were compared to a non-treatment control group. All three of these treatments successfully decreased symptoms of rape-related PTSD and improved more than the non-treatment control group. However there was no significant variation among the treatment groups on outcome measures. In a study that once again compared exposure therapy to cognitive therapy, Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998) examined these two treatments alone and in combination in outpatients with PTSD secondary to a wide range of traumatic events. A relaxation therapy condition was employed as the comparison group. The three active treatment groups demonstrated significant reduction in symptoms compared to the relaxation sample. These intervention groups were not markedly different from on another on the main treatment outcome measures. Several investigations have advanced the field of PTSD treatment, even though the methodology utilized in the outcome study limited the conclusions that could be drawn. Frank and Stewart (1983) reported the effects of systematic desensitization on women who had been raped and who developed significant psychological symptomatology. Compared to an untreated comparison group, those women treated with graduated exposure improved most on a range of anxiety and depression symptom measures. Imaginal and in-vivo exposure was compared in a randomized study of survivors of varying traumatic events (Richards, Lovell, and Marks,1994). At the 12-month follow-up, patients reported consistent reductions in PTSD symptoms and improved social adjustment. This data further substantiates the efficiency of exposure treatment for some individuals, and also suggest that improvements in symptoms are also reflected in critical domains of life functioning. In conclusion, the existing data advocates the use of exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD. In a previous review of this literature, Solomon, Gerrity, and Muff, (1992), (Sited in Shapiro, 1995) derived the same conclusion from data available at that time. Similar conclusions were drawn by Otto, Penava, Pollack, and Smoller (1996) in a more recent review of the literature. In what may prove to be an important lesson for the treatment of individuals exposed to traumatic events, Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, and Perry (1995) investigated the effectiveness of a short-term intervention to prevent the development of chronic PTSD in females who had been recently raped. The program was based upon that which worked well in earlier trials with chronic PTSD. Exposure therapy figured prominently in the package of treatment and also included elements of education, breathing retraining, and cognitive restructuring. When individuals receiving the package were compared to a control group, this study found that at 2 months post-treatment only ten percent of the treatment sample met the diagnosis for PTSD, while seventy percent of the untreated comparison group did. As information continues to grow on exposure therapy, there is a clear requirement for research to investigate combinations of psychological treatment, to utilize screening measures that consider occupational and social performance, and to access the outcome of interventions on co-morbid psychological difficulties. Unmistakably, the existing empirical research reveals the importance of extending the application of exposure approaches to PTSD patients. However future studies assessing the generalization of exposure therapy from laboratory trials to clinical settings would be particularly useful. When exposure therapy has been compared to other forms of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring (see below), it has proved to be more successful in reducing PTSD. Tarrier et al., (1999) assigned 72 people with chronic PTSD to either a Cognitive Therapy (CT) group or an imaginal exposure (IE) therapy group, and concluded that there was no noteworthy differentiation between the two treatment conditions initially or at 12 months post treatment. Participants recruited were obtained from a sample of referrals to primary and secondary mental health services and voluntary services, indicating that they were representative of a genuine clinical sample. However, 50% of the sample remained above clinical significance for PTSD symptoms after treatment was completed, although this dropped to 25% at six-month follow-up. This lack of improvement may have been influenced by participants failure to attend sessions regularly. Furthermore, those who did not show improvement rated the trea tment as less convincing and were rated as not as motivated by the clinician. Therefore, it is argued that motivation for therapy and regular attendance plays an important role in outcome of therapy regardless of treatment model. A further limitation of this study was that no control group was used and non-specific treatment factors and spontaneous remission could also account for the improvements in reported symptoms. Cognitive Restructuring Cognitive restructuring is derived from the theory that discovering and altering catastrophic and inaccurate interpretation of the trauma leads to a decrease in symptoms. Some of the latest models have emphasised the significance of altering thinking distortions in the rehabilitation of individuals who have experienced trauma (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005) utilized cognitive therapy based on the cognitive model of PTSD (see figure 1. Ehlers Clarke, 2000). From this model, the aim of therapy is to alter overly negative interpretations, amend the disturbance in autobiographical recollection and to eliminate the unhelpful behavioural and cognitive strategies (see figure 2, Ehlers et al., 2005). In a randomised controlled trial of twenty-eight participants diagnosed with PTSD. Fourteen participants were assigned at random to cognitive therapy treatment or a 13-week waiting-list condition. Those receiving cognitive therapy had 12 weekly treatment sessions, based on the Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model of trauma focused CBT. Participants completed self-report screenings of anxiety, mood and PTSD symptoms, and the Sheehan Disability Scale (APA, 2000). Measures were administered before and after treatment and at 6-months follow up. Findings revealed that cognitive therapy for PTSD was signifi cantly better than a three month waiting-list group on symptoms of PTSD, disability and symptoms of anxiety and affect. This study had no dropouts, which is a significant improvement on other studies, which yielded high dropout rates, (e.g. Tarrier et al., 1999). Participants displayed a positive change in cognitive appraisals. The Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model suggest that two additional paths of change; alteration in the autobiographical recollection of the trauma, and the discontinuation of maintenance behaviours and cognitive strategies are integral in reducing symptoms of PTSD. While the treatment incorporated these other aspects, these have not been measured systematically, so it is difficult to conclude whether clients experienced a change in these two areas. Further analysis indicated that demographic, trauma and diagnostic variable did not predict intervention results, signifying that the approach is pertinent to a broad scope of individual who have experienced trauma. Conversely, the extent of discrepancy of trauma and small sample numbers suggests that this finding would not be present in a larger sample. Co-morbid depression and previous trauma history, which was present in over half the sample, did not negatively affect outcome. Combinations of therapy Resick and Schnicke (1992) have proffered a multidimensional behavioural treatment for females who have PTSD associated with sexual assault. This treatment, known as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), includes components of exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring. The cognitive therapy element of CPT involves tackling central thinking distortions found among females who have been assaulted. These authors have developed interventions which particularly deal with concerns of trust, self-confidence, safety and intimacy in the lives of trauma victims. In a preliminary evaluation of CPT, the authors compared outcomes at pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up for an intervention group and a non-treatment group (no random assignment was used). On clinician ratings and psychometric inventories of PTSD, the individuals receiving CPT improved significantly. Impressively at the post-treatment assessment, none of the treated patients met criteria fo r PTSD. In another study, Resick, Nishith, and Astin (2000) evaluated CPT and exposure therapy in the management of sexual assault-related PTSD. Both approaches proved successful in general and were more successful than a non-treatment control group. CPT did also seem to reduce comorbid symptoms of depression, as well as those of PTSD. Combination therapy that incorporates a number of cognitive-behavioural techniques have the advantage of addressing various difficulties that individuals with PTSD may experience, in addition to integrating methods that have a considerable scientific evidence base in the clinical literature. An intervention incorporating exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring as the main elements for treating PTSD was proposed by Keane, Fisher, Krinsley, and Niles (1994). This treatment utilizes six stages as a means of treating severe and chronic PTSD, it incorporates the following: (1) behavioural stabilization; (2) trauma psycho-education; (3) AMT; (4) trauma focus work; (5) relapse prevention skills; and (6) aftercare procedures. Although this approach has clinical appeal, it wasnt until psychologists Fecteau and Nicki (1999) examined such a package in a randomized clinical trial for PTSD resulting from automobile accidents that the impact of a combination package such as that proposed by Keane et al. (1994) was assessed. Their intervention consisted of psycho-education, relaxation, exposure, cognitive restructuring, and guided behavioural exercises. Patients were randomly assigned to the treatment group or non-treatment comparison group and received some 8-10 sessions of individualized treatment. The outcome of the treatment was effective as assessed by clinical ratings, self-report questionnaires, and lab-based psycho-physiological evaluation methods. Described by the authors as clinically and statistically significant, these treatment outcomes were sustained at the 6-month post treatment evaluation. Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003) studied the effects of IE alone or IE with CR in the treatment of PTSD. They hypothesised a CR and IE treatment combination would lead to significantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms than exposure on its own, which would be more beneficial than a supportive counselling condition. Fifty-eight civilian trauma victims, diagnosed with PTSD as measured by the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, version II, CAPS-2, (Blake et al., 1995) were randomly allocated to one of the 3 conditions. Each participant received eight weekly 90-minute sessions of either IE, CR and IE or supportive counselling. Participants completed assessments at pre and post intervention and six months following. These measured PTSD symptoms and psychopathology. Forty-five participants completed treatment and analysis indicated that dropouts had higher scores for depression, avoidance and higher catastrophic cognitions than those who completed. Results indicated that parti cipants receiving both IE and IE/CR had a siginifcantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms and anxiety than supportive counselling (SC). The main revelation of this investigation was that treatment comprising of IE and CR leads to significantly better reductions in CAPS-II scores compared to treatment involving IE alone. Furthermore, those receiving IE/CR, but not IE on its own, gave accounts of less avoidance, depression and catastrophic thoughts than individuals in receipt SC. The findings from this research indicated that the combination of IE and CR are successful in decreasing symptoms of PTSD. It can be argued that the reasons why IE/CR may have been more effective than augmented treatments in the past (e.g. Foa et al., 1999) was that the research prudently controlled for the duration of time spent on every section of treatment. Furthermore, participants were instructed on CR before commencing IE so they understood the rationale behind the techniques prior to addressing the strong emotional components of IE. This may have increased their understanding and belief that it was a credible treatment approach. The outcome that CR improved the benefits of IE treatment could have been a result of a number of likely mechanisms. IE and CR may consist of similar aspects, such as processing of emotional memories, amalgamation of corrective information and acomplishment of self-mastery (Marks, 2000). Combining the two approaches may give the patient more chances to achieve treatment gains. CR may have lead to greater decrease in symptoms as it explicitly attended to identifying and changing unhelpful thoughts that may add to the maintenance of PTSD and related difficulties (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Paunovic and Ost (2001), compared treatment outcome data for CBT and exposure therapy for sixteen refugees with PTSD. The authors excluded those who became too distressed in the initial interview, expressed a lack of confidence in the therapist or were misusing alcohol or drugs. Results indicated there was no significant difference between participants completing CBT or exposure therapy, being similar to Tarrier et als (1999) findings. Criticisms of Paunovic and Ost (2001)s study are that participants did not use a self-report trauma measure, so although results are positive, there is no clear analysis of whether participants felt their trauma symptoms decreased as a result of the treatment. Further, it is not possible to generalise these findings to traumatised refugees in general, as this work is unique. Working with the use of an interpreter raises several ethical and sensitive issues, as the participant must be able to develop a therapeutic alliance with the therapist and trust the interpreter (Tribe, 2007). It could be argued that participants may have been experiencing a greater degree of trauma, not least because they had not yet learned the native language. Discussion The most successful CBT treatments seem to be those that involve repeated exposure to the traumatic memory (Foa et al., 1991; Foa et al., 1999; Foa Rothbaum, 1992) on cognitive restructuring of the interpretation of the traumatic event, (Ehlers Clarke, 2000) or a combination of these approaches, (Resick Schnicke, 1992). Importantly, studies have concluded that trauma focused CBT is more successful than supportive counselling (Blanchard et al., 2003; Bryant et al., 2003). Whilst the studies reviewed have helpfully added to our understanding of PTSD there are numerous limitations of the applications of the findings. One in particular is an over-reliance on non-clinical samples of participants such that many claims of clinically effective therapy have been made from research with participants who were not within mental health systems, and despite having PTSD symptoms had not actively sought treatment. In addition, dropout rates in studies are high, particularly for those studies that did not use a clinical sample. This might have skewed the evidence particularly with approaches that used exposure-based therapy. Furthermore, most of the studies reviewed screened out those individuals experiencing the greatest amount of distress, avoidance and co-morbidity. Therefore results are biased towards those clients who were able to tolerate treatment and whose symptoms were not as chronic. Indeed, inclusion and exclusion criteria appear to have a great impact on outcome of treatment. For example, studies with a strict inclusion criteria (e.g. no co-morbidity, substance misuse, self harm) appear to have significant improvements, whilst other studies i.e. Kubany et al., (2003), allowed participants to continue with other therapy while embarking on their therapy. This makes it methodologically difficult to ascertain exactly what has been effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. As inclusion and exclusion criteria are idiosyncratic across studies, it makes it difficult to draw general conclusions regarding treatment effectiveness with a clinical population across studies. Studies often chose to focus therapy on identified groups, e.g. police officers. However, clients who experience PTSD do not form a homogeneous group and further, the symptoms experienced may be diverse even within a sample of individuals who have experienced the same trauma. Treatment studies often do not control for other factors that may be important contributing factors in outcome such as the role of education, quality of the therapeutic relationship, therapeutic alliance and other nonspecific factors. The literature was generally from American, British or European sources although clearly trauma is intercultural. This raises issues about how different cultures interpret PTSD, an essentially Western concept, and also whether the treatments advocated would be effective cross-culturally. Previous research has strongly indicated that PTSD is not an appropriate term to use in non-western situations (Summerfield, 1997), hence therapeutic approaches need to account for this. It is not clear in the majority of studies when the participant experienced the trauma, and at what point therapy started. Frequently these characteristics are omitted from studies, therefore making it difficult to compare effectiveness of studies. It is essential to think about the types of individuals that have been represented in the research and to look at whether it is representative of those who seek treatment. Finally, very little has been reported on the impact of other difficulties an individual is experiencing as PTSD can have a broad ranging effect on an individuals quality of life and functioning and most often clients have more complex presentations. Only very few studies reviewed controlled for this variable (see Ehlers et al., 2005). This is an inherent difficulty when completing resea rch with a trauma population as within research it is important to obtain a sample that have a similar degree of difficulties in order to assess treatment efficacy. Several papers have evaluated different types of therapy according to particular groups. However, it appears that one size does not fit all in relation to PTSID. In particular the issues of culture and gender are of importance (see Liebling Ojiambo-Ochieng, 2000; Sheppard, 2000). Individual formulations of presenting problems and contexts, which informs therapy that is adapted to suit individual clients needs, may in fact be more helpful. It remains important to consider individual differences and client choice when offering trauma therapy. Trauma therapy outcome studies are limited by the fact that sufferers usually have other mental health problems alongside PTSD such as depression or social anxiety. Evaluation of effective treatment of trauma survivors therefore might need to go beyond medical diagnostic categories as most of the research excludes clients with co-morbid problems. A multifaceted intervention, based on clients own views, which addressed these other difficulties, could assist in decreasing relapse and greaten the long-lasting effectiveness of any PTSD intervention. As outlined in the methodological limitations section, much of the research reviewed has not used a genuine clinical sample, there are high dropout rates, widely variable inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the heterogeneity of PTSD has perhaps not yet been accounted for. It is therefore difficult to ascertain what is specifically helpful or effective within the treatment components. This seems to be the next area for consideration in resea rch. Further research into the optimal length of treatment and timing of therapy, the effect of co-morbidity and the differing effects of individual and group therapy approaches for traumatised clients are required. Further controlled research is needed to ascertain if the types of therapies reviewed can provide long term lasting effects in reducing PTSD symptomatology. At present the scientific evidence is mainly restricted to the evaluation of short term, focused treatment approaches, and it would be helpful to have controlled studies on longer-term interventions for more complex cases of trauma. Further research would benefit from considering the clients views and experiences of therapy, this perspective was lacking in the literature reviewed. Service user and carer perspectives are beyond the scope of this review, however they have been highlighted as an important consideration within the NICE guidelines and therefore require further consideration in future research. Conclusion There appear to be at least three approaches with exceptional empirical evidence for treating PTSD; exposure therapy, cognitive therapy or a combination of these methods. These three interventions have empirical validation in well-controlled clinical trials, demonstrate strong treatment effect sizes, and seem to work well across varied populations of trauma sufferers. However future research to examine the efficacy of these methods in clinical environments is necessary. There is much to be learned about the treatment of PTSD. It is certain there will be no simple answers for treating people who have experienced the most horrific events life offers. Undoubtedly, combinations of treatments as proposed by Keane et al. (1994) and Resick and Schnicke (1992) may prove to be the most powerful interventions. PTSD research in this area is only in the earliest stages of its development. Finally, an assumption about the uniformity of traumatic events has been made in the literature in general. Although it is reasonable to speculate that fundamental similarities exist among patients who have experienced diverse traumatic events and then develop PTSD, whether these patients will respond to clinical interventions in the same way is an empirical question that has yet to be addressed. Studies posing a question such as this would be a welcome addition to the clinical literature: Will people with PTSD resulting from combat, torture, genocide, and natural disasters all improve as well as those treated successfully following rape, motor vehicle accidents, and assaults? This is a crucial issue that requires additional scientific study in order to provide clinicians with the requisite evidence supporting the use of available techniques. Research on the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and the prevalence of PTSD has mainly been carried out in the United States. Yet there are fundamental errors in assuming that these prevalence rates apply even to other Western, developed countries. Studies that examine the prevalence of PTSD and other disorders internationally are clearly warranted. Implicit in this recommendation is the need to examine the extent to which current assessment instrumentation is culturally sensitive to the ways in which traumatic reactions are expressed internationally. Much work on this topic will be required before definitive conclusions regarding prevalence rates of PTSD internationally can be drawn. Studies of the effectiveness of the psychological treatments across cultures and ethnic groups are also needed. What may be effective for Western populations may be inadequate or possibly even unacceptable treatment for people who reside in other areas of the world and who have different world views, beliefs, and perspectives. This issue will need to be more closely examined before we can draw definitive conclusions. It is suggested that despite the type of treatment provided to individuals with trauma there is ultimately a necessity for a flexible, integrative approach to treatment in order to address the multifaceted and changing requirements of individual trauma survivors. A range of outcomes has been revealed with the types of treatments outlined in this review, it is uncertain which individuals will respond greatest to various treatment approaches. Nevertheless, what is important in determining the effectiveness of any psychological treatment of PTSD is that it is reliant upon forming and upholding a therapeutic alliance that is strong enough for the client to experience as safe and trusting for positive emotional modifications to take place.

Light in August by William Faulkner Essay -- Light August william Faul

Light in August by William Faulkner Light in August, a novel written by the well-known author, William Faulkner, can definitely be interpreted in many ways. However, one fairly obvious prospective is through a religious standpoint. It is difficult, nearly impossible, to construe Light in August without noting the Christian parallels. Faulkner gives us proof that a Christian symbolic interpretation is valid. Certain facts of these parallels are inescapable and there are many guideposts to this idea. For instance, there is Joe Christmas, one of the main characters in the novel. His initials are J.C., which can be an acronym for the name Jesus Christ. There is the fact of his uncertain paternity and his appearance at the orphanage on Christmas day, as well. Joe is approximately thirty-three years of age at his lynching; This event is prepared for throughout Light in August by Faulkner’s constant use of the word crucifixion. Also, there are many more convincing Christian symbolisms that seem to have lead readers to believe that William Faulkner arranged his events and directed his themes to parallel the twenty-one chapters of the St. John Gospel. These religious symbols, however, stray from the text of Light in August and seek to unify the novel through biblical allusions alone. They attempt to answer the questions of how Light in August functions as a work of literature by avoiding the novel itself. Because of this, they each fall short of being an exact interpretation of the novel. Still, the Christian parallels cannot be ignored and must function for some firm purpose in this novel. If Light in August has enough surfaces corresponding to warrant the claim of a direct parallel in both theme and action to the Gospel of John, then where is the crucifix, the most important symbol of Christianity? This significant tool should be in a book with such religious relevance. The important symbol was not left out, however; they were only distorted to a degree. Faulkner may have been giving a clue to the way in which he distorted the crucifix. For example, wood imagery is relevant in this case. There are several wood mills: Doane’s Mill, and then the planing mill in Jefferson. Lena asks Byron Bunch, â€Å"Is there another planing mill?† Byron replies, â€Å"No, ma’am. There are some sawmills, a right smart of them, though†. Faulkner may have been alerting his audie... ...not been a part of Christmas’ â€Å"wooden world†, now rides with a furniture repairman. Typically, Lena’s narration does not call attention to poles or posts of any kind. It is only after Christmas is dead that Lena notices the cross-like images. This would seem to suggest not only that she is perhaps a Virgin Mary figure carrying a Christ figure inside her, but also that she herself is the resurrect â€Å"life† after Christ’s (Christmas’) crucifixion. It seems highly possible in a novel that distorts the Crucifix that the process of Christ’s death and resurrection could also be distorted. Ironically, however, Lena exists at the same time with Christmas, but never meets him because within the context of the New Testament, resurrection comes only after death. In turn, Lena and Christmas never meet because it would be illogical for the Virgin Mary figure to meet her baby while she is carrying her baby. All of these characters’ narrations, which can appear incoherent, are, connected through the distorted image of the wooden cross. The posts and other symbols link Christmas and the Testaments together. Light in August functions as a fluid novel though structured distortion of the Gospels. Light in August by William Faulkner Essay -- Light August william Faul Light in August by William Faulkner Light in August, a novel written by the well-known author, William Faulkner, can definitely be interpreted in many ways. However, one fairly obvious prospective is through a religious standpoint. It is difficult, nearly impossible, to construe Light in August without noting the Christian parallels. Faulkner gives us proof that a Christian symbolic interpretation is valid. Certain facts of these parallels are inescapable and there are many guideposts to this idea. For instance, there is Joe Christmas, one of the main characters in the novel. His initials are J.C., which can be an acronym for the name Jesus Christ. There is the fact of his uncertain paternity and his appearance at the orphanage on Christmas day, as well. Joe is approximately thirty-three years of age at his lynching; This event is prepared for throughout Light in August by Faulkner’s constant use of the word crucifixion. Also, there are many more convincing Christian symbolisms that seem to have lead readers to believe that William Faulkner arranged his events and directed his themes to parallel the twenty-one chapters of the St. John Gospel. These religious symbols, however, stray from the text of Light in August and seek to unify the novel through biblical allusions alone. They attempt to answer the questions of how Light in August functions as a work of literature by avoiding the novel itself. Because of this, they each fall short of being an exact interpretation of the novel. Still, the Christian parallels cannot be ignored and must function for some firm purpose in this novel. If Light in August has enough surfaces corresponding to warrant the claim of a direct parallel in both theme and action to the Gospel of John, then where is the crucifix, the most important symbol of Christianity? This significant tool should be in a book with such religious relevance. The important symbol was not left out, however; they were only distorted to a degree. Faulkner may have been giving a clue to the way in which he distorted the crucifix. For example, wood imagery is relevant in this case. There are several wood mills: Doane’s Mill, and then the planing mill in Jefferson. Lena asks Byron Bunch, â€Å"Is there another planing mill?† Byron replies, â€Å"No, ma’am. There are some sawmills, a right smart of them, though†. Faulkner may have been alerting his audie... ...not been a part of Christmas’ â€Å"wooden world†, now rides with a furniture repairman. Typically, Lena’s narration does not call attention to poles or posts of any kind. It is only after Christmas is dead that Lena notices the cross-like images. This would seem to suggest not only that she is perhaps a Virgin Mary figure carrying a Christ figure inside her, but also that she herself is the resurrect â€Å"life† after Christ’s (Christmas’) crucifixion. It seems highly possible in a novel that distorts the Crucifix that the process of Christ’s death and resurrection could also be distorted. Ironically, however, Lena exists at the same time with Christmas, but never meets him because within the context of the New Testament, resurrection comes only after death. In turn, Lena and Christmas never meet because it would be illogical for the Virgin Mary figure to meet her baby while she is carrying her baby. All of these characters’ narrations, which can appear incoherent, are, connected through the distorted image of the wooden cross. The posts and other symbols link Christmas and the Testaments together. Light in August functions as a fluid novel though structured distortion of the Gospels.

Technology and the Human Genome Project :: Essays Papers

Technology and the Human Genome Project Technology is changing the way the world works in profound ways at an unprecedented rate. As we speak, scientists in labs around the world are decoding the remaining portion of the genome map. One day (even now), with the information compiled in GenBank, scientists can discover new drugs, new methods of gene therapy, and other preventive measures which will vastly improve the quality of life (NCBI Â ¶1). David Smith, previously a director of the Department of Energy, said, "These are exciting and challenging times for biological researchers. The wealth of information and capabilities now being generated by the various genome projects and other biological endeavors will lead over the next two decades to more insights into living systems than have been amassed in the past two millennia. Biology is truly undergoing a revolution" (Walters 545). There are only two major problems facing researchers in their efforts to put the massive amounts (terrabytes) of data generated from the Human Genome Project (HGM) to use. The first and most prohibitive problem is cost. Over a billion dollars have already been sank into the project, which was spent on both developing new technologies to make the gene sequencing process more efficient and cost effective, and of course the actual gene mapping (Pennisi 82). Although the expense is extreme, the HGM is popular enough that funding is still available. Countries who were not previously involved are gaining interest in the project. Japan, for example, has a proposed budget of $570 million to invest in genomic research, which is, "considerably more than the U.S. National Human Genome Research Institute expects to spend" (Normile et al. 84). The second problem facing scientists is the current lack of computer hardware and software that are powerful enough to effectively use the data that is being gathered. One area of genome research that requires more advanced technology is proteomics, which is the study of protein interactions (for an in-depth explanation of proteomics, visit www.npr.org and listen). "New developments in bioinformatics would enhance the ability of researchers to manipulate, collect, and analyze data more quickly and in new ways" (Pennisi 85). Considering the fact that the number of proteins is predicted to be in the millions, new computers and technologies that can process such large amounts of data efficiently must be developed. New and unplanned uses of the technologies developed from genome research are being found.

Awakening to Freedom Essay -- essays papers

Awakening to Freedom Awakening or to awake means â€Å"to wake up; to be or make alert or watchful† (Webster 23). This is what Edna Pontellier experienced in The Awakening. There has been some discussion over the appropriateness of the ending to this story. Was it appropriate for Edna to commit suicide? Yes, this story of Edna Pontellier, including the ending, is appropriate to what a woman probably would have felt like if she were in that time feeling what Edna was feeling. Edna committed suicide because there was no other way out. She did not fit into society. Her thoughts and emotions were not the same as the thoughts and emotions of the other women of this time. Edna committed suicide so that she could be reborn in a time that she would be excepted as she was. Edna was ahead of her time. She wanted a life for herself. She didn’t want her husband or her children to establish it for her. â€Å"I would give up the unessential; I would give my money, I would give my life for my children; but I wouldn’t give myself† (Chopin 573). This is not something that a w...

Interior and Exterior Concepts of Visual Merchandising Essay

Visual merchandising is the art of implementing effective design ideas to increase store traffic and sales volume. Visual merchandising is known to be silent selling, in the sense that the product should sell itself. It is all about delivering good customer service to enhance the experience in store. There are many tactics and techniques for visual merchandising which are all linked to the physiological ways of the consumer are buying behaviours. Visual merchandising is very important to retailers because it shows how well they know the consumer, it will increase their foot flow in store and their sales if they get it right. It is important because it’s about creating the right experience to make them want to come back and buy things when in store. I will be looking at visual merchandising of three stores. The three stores I have chosen are Bank, JD sports and Farm and Pet place. Bank: Bank has a target market of 15-25, they provide the latest branded fashion and the competitors are arcadia group. JD Sports: JD sells the latest sportswear for their target market of sports enthusiasts. Their competitors are JJB sports and Sports direct. Farm and Pet Place: Farm and Pet place provide farm and get goods to its target market of farmers and pet owners. Its main competitors are pets at home and wynnstays. Findings Location & Visual Merchandising There are three types of locations for retailers these are: * Primary * Secondary * Anchor As the primary location is the main, they are town or city, it is important the retailer makes the store stand out compared to its competitors. Retailers in a primary location usually have standard visual merchandising. The secondary location is the quieter area of the towns and cities far away from main facilities and amenities; this is why there is less foot flow than a primary location. There is normally not a lot of space for retailers to experiment with their visual merchandise and the retailers located in the secondary location usually have poor visual merchandising as they follow procedure instead of being creative as they don’t have a big budget. An anchor store is a store within a precinct or on a high street with large overheads it attracts well known retailers who have the pulling factor to bring other retailers to the area. An anchor store retailer will have a very large budget to be able to become creative with their visual merchandising this why they usually have very food visual merchandising. Bank store in Llandudno is in a secondary location, so is Farm and Pet place and JD sports. Bank and JD are both in outlet centres therefore they have a lot of foot flow even though it’s just a secondary location. I think that Farm and Pet place are situated in a place where there isn’t much foot flow; you’d go there because you knew about it. Purpose Built or Interior Buildings Whether a retailer has decided to buy a previously owned building or buy a purpose built building, it affects the visual merchandising as every building has a different shape. If retailers buy a purpose built building they will have an advantage as they’re much better for visual merchandising because of the shape and the height, it is more suited. The purpose built buildings have considered the needs of the visual merchandising. For the inherited buildings it is not as easy as some of them are listed therefore the shop front cannot be changed, so if a retailer wanted to have a fancy shop front they could not because the building cannot be changed. Also they are really narrow and long therefor it is really cramped spacing to visual merchandise; it limits how much you are able to do. Even though purpose built buildings are more costly they are more cost effective in the long run. Bank has a purpose built building, however they haven’t taken full advantage of it because they have a false ceiling which could be potential selling space but it’s been wasted because they rushed getting the store open. The Farm and Pet place also have a purpose built building which they too haven’t taken full advantage of as they have windows in their store except the glass in the entrance doors. JD has purpose built buildings and they have taken full advantage of their purpose built store as they have put everything to its use. It has two floors, one for clothes products and the upper level footwear selling space. Store Architecture The design indicates the size and prestige of the retailers operation. The use of materials will create different images and effects within the store. As I have mentioned in the above paragraph about listed buildings, retailers are unable to change them to suit the ways of their visual merchandising as they cannot be structurally altered. As all three of the retailers I have chosen have purpose built stores they should be able to store and suit their store to the type of visual merchandising they may have, it should work in their advantage however in these cases it seems to not work as an advantage as they have poor visual merchandising displays. Farm and Pet place have no windows even though there store is purpose built so they could change it they haven’t therefore they have window displays to encourage people to go into the store. Even though JD have ken full advantage of the space of their purpose built store they don’t use their window space properly as they have little displays and Bank haven’t used their second floor and aren’t very creative with their displays. Fascia The fascia of a store is what identifies the store and attracts attention from the public. They also are what able customers to identify the store, what is sold and where the retailer is located. Here are three types of fascia: * Straight Flat Format * Side Hanging Format * Raised Front Format The straight flat format can only be seen from the front of the shop I feel this this isn’t the best option for a fascia as it doesn’t stand out very well they usually use these formats in precincts. The side hanging fascia are usually used in high streets, they are quite affective as customers can see it from both directions, creating more attention. The raised front format is usually illuminated and can be seen from far away I feel this is good as it creates a lot of attention from people walking past or people passing in cars. Many retailers tend to take a safe approach to their logo for example just using a black and white colour scheme, this is not a good approach as the store doesn’t stand out and it may lose out to other competitors. It is replicated throughout the store. Bank and JD have raised front format but Farm and Pet place has a straight flat format, Bank stores sign lights up as does JD which makes it visible to customers in the dark but Farm and Pet Place don’t have a sign that lights up. As is their window isplays in Bank and JD they have timing for the lights to go on and off at appropriate times but because Farm and Pet Place don’t have any windows, as they are a warehouse, they don’t need timed lights. All three retailers have their brand displayed through the fascias. I think as a recommendation to them all they should invest in side hanging fascia this makes it harder for customers to overlook the store because they haven’t seen the sign. As a personal recommendation to Farm and Pet Place they should light up their sign and invest in windows to display their merchandise. The Importance of the Shop Format This is the first part of the store which the customers see, this is where they create there first impression therefore it is important to get it right. There are three recognised types of shop front these are: * The Straight Front * The Angled Front * The Arcade Front The straight front is for shops that run parallel to the street with small entrance; this is hard for retailers with visual merchandising as they have small spaces to work with to be able to make their shop front stand out. This makes it harder to compete with competitors. The angled front enables shops to create a more attractive and interesting front this helps direct customers into the store. It also creates a better viewing angle and can reduce the glare on the window making everything more visible. The arcade front is straight with several recessed window and entrances this provides the shopper with a protected area for window shopping drawing them in and creating a more relaxed atmosphere. The Importance of Window Displays The window displays an important part of visual merchandising as this is what entices the customer into entering the store. In order to pull the customers into the store is through window dressing, it needs to grab the customer’s attention it only takes 3 seconds for a customer to gain an impression. There are two types of window displays these are: * Simplistic * Artistic The UK retailers have tended to stick to the simplistic look for their window displays except for the bigger stores such as Harrods as they have a lot of money to spend. The purpose of the window displays is to represent a small sample of merchandise the store holds and to enforce their corporate image; they are also to be informative to the customers. Informative window displays provide information to customers for example as we have had the Olympics back in 2012, the theme of their window may be based around that theme. The fact that they were themed displays around the Olympics meant that they would be tackling two things at once because you are meant to display them in an informative way. As Farm and Pet Place don’t have a window they cannot display window displays and customers cannot see anything they see in store they actually have to go into the store this may put customers off as a lot of customers like to window shop. Bank fashion has a very simple window display, it shows what offers they have but they don’t show many products displayed in their window, so to improve they could think about extending the window space to display more products to show their range that they stock in store and be more creative. JD Sports don’t have a good window display, they display barely any products and a few pairs of footwear, it doesn’t look appealing to customers therefore they won’t go into the store because of the window display.