Cultural Identity Is The Belonging Of An Individual

Cultural identity is the belonging of an individual to a group. According to the iceberg model of culture, this group typically shares the same behaviors, beliefs, and values and thought patterns. As someone whose response to the question â€Å"where are you from?† sounds more like strained sounds than actual words, I have struggled tremendously with determining the cultural identities that construct my identity. I often feel more like a cultural chameleon than an individual possessing cultural identities, the constant change from one culture to the next leaving me feeling bereft of my own. However, upon deeper reflection, I have come to realize that it is my identity that is fluid, as prescribed in the critical perspective of identity, and is in constant development, as prescribed in the interpretive perspective of identity. While my identity is adaptable and evolving, I do possess certain cultural identities. These cultural identities come in great variety, from my national identity as an American to my racial identity as a white person. As I grow, however, I have found that it is my cultural identifications of being a female, survivor, and Nomadic Culture Kid that are most salient and influential in my identity development. Of the numerous cultural identities that I have developed, one of the most immediate cultural identities was my gender identity as a female. While certain external cultural notions were prescribed to me the moment I was born, the most influentialShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Poem The Hunchback Of Notre Dame 950 Words   |  4 PagesAn individual’s relation with others often impacts their sense of belonging to themselves. However, the complex nature of belonging presents further obstacles to connecting to one’s environment. This is illustrated through Peter Skrzynecki’s ‘Immigrant Chronicles’, in which he depicts the complications of belonging through his personal experiences. In addition, Victo r Hugo’s ‘The Hunchback of Notre Dame’ also represents the intricacy of connecting to others through the protagonist, Quasimodo. EssentuallyRead MoreThe Current Challenges of Cultural Identity Essay974 Words   |  4 PagesCultural identity refers to the feeling belonging to a certain culture that is attributed to the upbringing of an individual in the given culture. Cultural identity gives a person the sense of belonging and belonging towards their culture. Modern cultural studies show that cultural identification has taken a new face. Various cultural identifiers can be used to identify the culture of an individual. These identifiers include nationality, language, location, gender, religious beliefs, history, andRead MoreBelonging - Peter Skryznecki Mean Girls1180 Words   |  5 PagesBelonging is not always a good thing. What disadvantages are there for individuals and society in belonging? Refer to set text and one other related text. Belonging in some instances can not be beneficial for ones wellbeing. Negative consequences may arise from the way in which one develops belonging. Barriers to belonging can be imposed or voluntarily constructed, and allowing one to distort the barriers can affect the way one belongs to people, places, groups or the larger world. Peter Skryznecki’sRead MoreA Sense of Belonging Comes from Having Connections with People and Places859 Words   |  4 PagesA sense of belonging is an essential part of every individuals life. A sense of belonging can be created from having connections with people and places within a personal, cultural, historical and social context. The choice of where to belong and who to belong with changes peoples sense of belonging as time passes. The Poetry of Peter Skrzyneckis Immigrant Chronicle and Carson McCullerss novel , The member of the wedding demonstrates how a sense of belonging comes from having connectionsRead MoreThird Culture Kids ( Tck )787 Words   |  4 Pageschanged over time (Fail, Thompson, Walker, 2004). Pollock (2010) defines third culture kids as â€Å"individuals who, having spent a significant part of the developmental years in a culture other than the parents’ culture, develops a sense of relationship to all of the cultures while not having full ownership in any. Elements from each culture are incorporated into the life experience, but the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar experience† (Pollock Van Reken, 2010). Pollock explainsRead MoreIdentity And Cultural Identity1158 Words   |  5 PagesAn individual may not have a preference or choice they’re automatically born into their cultural identity by naturally acquiring their language, accustoms, and/or taught other cultural fundamentals. This may reflect different ways or aspects of how importance five-factor models of personality, language, or learned gestures may play a role in a family or their culture based on the majority and minority which speaks also as a method of communication. Understanding there’s another way identity labelingRead MoreExploring Canada s Ethnocultural Diversity And The General Population Essay1261 Words   |  6 Pagesspecifically comparing the health-seeking behaviour and care use behaviour of Canadia n residents of SSA origin with the rest of the populace. Additionally, the proposed research seeks to critically examine geographical, economic, biological, socio-cultural and prevailing health policy on CAM, and how these broader factors contribute to the less use of CAM among the elderly as compared to the younger people. These two broader aims are the gaps in CAM research both in Canada and other western countriesRead MoreCultural Identity In Deaf Culture1444 Words   |  6 PagesAn individual may not have a preference or choice they’re automatically born into their cultural identity by naturally acquiring their language, accustoms, and/or taught other cultural fundamentals. This may reflect different ways or aspects of how importance five-factor models of personality, language, or learned gestures may play a role in a family or their culture based on the majority and minority which speaks also as a method of communication. Understanding there’s another way identit y labelingRead MoreBelonging - Swallow the Air Essays1047 Words   |  5 Pagesand the world around them can enrich or limit their experience of belonging.’ BY joseph king When an individual’s sense of identity is corrupted through prejudicial attitudes they are left exposed and vulnerable allowing a sense of isolation and displacement in society. An individual’s ability to promote change within is largely influenced by the hardships they experience in their struggle to conform and the connectedness of identity that stems from acceptance. Tara June Winch’s novel Swallow theRead MoreEthnic Unbonding in South Africa1644 Words   |  7 Pagesthe gradual withdrawal certain African-Americans are undergoing, so that they no longer are a member of their initial ethnic group. ‘Ethnic unbonding’ is a process where individuals remove themselves from their ethnic groups, because they are either ashamed or humiliated to be associated as part of a stigmatized ethnic identity. â€Å"So, race matters a lot. But, at the same time, the class divide among blacks has created such fundamentally different living conditions that there is growing hostility among

Essay on Computer Hardware Engineering - 1442 Words

Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. As Arthur C. Clark, a British inventor, puts it, technology has been constantly improving and the latest advancements have become astonishingly powerful. Computer hardware engineering is the designing, building, and testing of computer hardware and computer systems. Computer hardware engineers acquire a persistent and detail- oriented nature. Through their work, computer hardware engineers get a wide range of opportunity, but they are also loaded with seemingly endless work on their hands. Ultimately, computer hardware engineering provides a cause for innovative thinkers and creative designers, labeling it as a job worth pursuing. Computer history goes back to the†¦show more content†¦Input devices include keyboards, scanners, and video cameras (Computer Hardware Fergusons Career Guidance Center). Output devices, such as a monitor or screen, allow users to access and change data and information. (Computer Hardware). Communications devices, such as modems, enable computers to connect to other systems via cables or telephone lines (Computer Hardware). Before designing a new computer project, computer hardware engineers must analyze current market trends and their clients expectations to determine the new products specifications, by means of technology and design. Computer hardware engineers hold a variety of responsibilities within their job, so their daily work requires hard work and commitment. The daily life of a computer hardware engineer is long and tough. Engineers may begin their day with a meeting with their team, either discussing progress on a current project or taking a look at market trend to determine their next project. These meetings usually range between one hour to two hours, and people who attend may be required to take notes. After the meeting, each engineer returns to his or her individual office and works toward finishing their individual tasks. Individually, compu ter hardware engineers may diagnose and troubleshoot failed media and solid state storage devices and modify hardware to either enable forensic analysis of the media or to change the functionality of the hardware for other purposes. Then, computer hardwareShow MoreRelatedComputer Hardware Engineering1185 Words   |  5 PagesComputer Hardware Engineering Computer hardware engineers research, develop, and test computer systems and components such as processors, circuit boards, memory devices, and many more (Bureau of Labor Statistics). They design new computer hardware, create blueprints of computer equipment to be built. Test the completed models of the computer hardware that they design. Update existing equipment so that it will work will new software. Oversee the manufacturing process for the computer hardware. MaintainRead MoreComputer Hardware Engineering : The Advancement Of Technology1246 Words   |  5 PagesComputer Hardware Engineering The advancement in technology has made an evolution in the world today. Everything people use now is because of the advancement of technology. The social media used now and all of the jobs are based around today’s technology. Technology has changed the work industry in everything from textile making, to computer chips. The machines and all of the tools used we designed and made with technology. Computer engineers are working every day to make technology better. ComputerRead MoreA Future in Computer Hardware Engineering Essay examples922 Words   |  4 PagesA Future in Computer Hardware Engineering Computer Hardware Engineering is something that sparked my interest when I was younger. I was very young when I was first introduced to computers and consoles and such. It mainly started when I was very young and my older brother showed me video games, on systems like the Gameboy. The Gameboy was basically how I started to become interested in video games, and after the handhelds I began to play on consoles. Then in the past couple of years I startedRead MoreWhat It Takes to Become a Computer Engineer Essay1421 Words   |  6 PagesNowadays people enjoy high tech computers, smart phones and all sorts of gadgets. But before people can enjoy them someone has to create the program to run the device. That’s were computer engineers come in. The field itself branches off into many fields including cybersecurity, networking, computer software, computer hardware. They have the difficult task of designing the body and mind of the computer. Computer engineering is an ever-growing field that makes computers smaller, faster, and more efficientRead MoreCareer Paper: Computer Hardware Engineer1830 Words   |  7 Pagesare out there today. Computer engineering is a job that is constantly leading to the development of new technology, which is always changing as the years go. by (â€Å"Electrical† para. 1). Computer hardware engineers much research, design, develop, and test computer systems (â€Å"Computer†... U.S. para. 1). Also, they could improve processes, circuit boards, memory devices, networks, and routers (â€Å"Computer†... U.S. para. 1). The skills that are needed to be a computer hardware engineer are complex problemRead MoreThe Field Of Computer Engineering1347 Words   |  6 Pagesacronym for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) are attractive for many prospective students. My own personal interest lies in the field of computer engineering, which is categorized as a STEM career and reaps the benefits of such a classification. The field of computer engineering requires relatively modest education, but still rewards employees with a comfortable life, numerous benefits, and personal fulfillment. The qualifications of working as a computer engineer are relatively modestRead MoreBehind The Scenes Of Technology1463 Words   |  6 Pagestoday’s age, most people have a smartphone or a tablet or a laptop or maybe a computer, but do they know how their phone or computer actually works? To most people, you just type away or press a button and then it magically does whatever you want it to do. However, there is more going on in a computer or a phone than just the simplicity of pressing a button. Better yet, who actually makes all this stuff? Who makes a computer or phone? Who designs these things? Who engineers all these technological appliancesRead MoreComputer Engineering : A Very Time Consuming Job1221 Words   |  5 PagesComputer Engineering is a very time consuming job. With taking most of your time computers and staying late rather than being home. When seeking a career as a computer engineer, a person should really take into consideration the knowledgeable skills, im mense responsibility, and the adaptation of constant improvement of technology, and the best institution for this training is Texas AM, College Station. Computer engineers provide information and data processing for certain computer firms and organizationsRead MoreComputer Engineering : Becoming A Computer Engineer1386 Words   |  6 PagesComputer Engineering Computer engineering is a very extensive, challenging career. To become a computer engineer you need years of experience and college education. Many people think this career is easy and good paying, but is not that easy, excessive amount of knowledge is needed to become a top class engineer in this field, but that doesn’t mean it is an impossible task. One must understand that computer engineering is a challenge since before one begins studying it. With that kept in mind anRead MoreArticle Review : Security Rule Checking Of Ic Design1194 Words   |  5 Pagespublished in the journal Computers in August 2016. This memo will focus on the readability, writing qualities, and scientific methodologies. About Journal Computers is an annual journal that publishes by IEEE Computer Society. It is peer reviewed journal that can be found online and hardcopy. Most of the articles which were written by computer researchers were about all stuff about computer such as hardware, software, new applications, etc. The target audiences are computer scientists, engineers,

Discuss the Timeless Quality of Shakespeares Sonnets free essay sample

Chief among these woes is the passage of time. No other poet has so vividly described the passage of time and the horror that this can inspire. Shakespeare reflected on this throughout most of his sonnets, trying desperately to find a way to counter time’s destructive passage. Ultimately, love is pitted against time and in the sonnets there is always a lively battle and a question hanging over which will prevail. Throughout my study of Shakespeare’s sonnets I studied sonnet 18, 65, and 116 each of these sonnets had a timeless quality to them. In the opening line of Sonnet 18 (‘shall I compare thee’) Shakespeare asks a question ‘shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? † the poet is considering writing a poem that compares his loved one to a fine day in the summer time. Immediately we recognise that this is a subjective poem as he addresses his loved one directly. The first quatrain is filled with sibilant s-sounds enhancing the notion of a beautiful summer’s day. However Shakespeare decides that this is not an appropriate comparison as â€Å"Thou art more lovely and more temperate† the repetition of â€Å"more† accentuates the depth of feeling. It is interesting to note that while positive images abound in the poem â€Å"summer’s day† â€Å"darling buds† Shakespeare juxtaposes these images with negative ideas â€Å"rough winds† â€Å"all to short a date†. Here Shakespeare focuses on the ageing process of the human being, an idea that obsessed him. In the second quatrain Shakespeare emphasises how time is a destroyer â€Å"And every fair from fair sometime declines†. This line means that everything fair or beautiful in the world must sometimes â€Å"decline† as beauty slips away. The brevity of life is a theme that pervades all of his sonnets and it is counteracted by his determination to preserve the memory of his loved one. Shakespeare’s obsession is what adds a timeless quality to his sonnets as in today’s society the majority of people are obsessed and are trying to counteract the decline of the human being with age. Throughout the second quatrain there is also a lot of assonance which is used to slow down the pace of the poem along with a series of pauses â€Å"too hot† â€Å"gold complexion†. Shakespeare now personifies the sun â€Å"the eye of heaven† â€Å"his complexion† this is a notable image as the image of the sun’s â€Å"eye† looking down on the world and its complexion â€Å"being dimmed† by cloud cover is memorable. Again, Shakespeare focuses on the aging process through words like â€Å"dimmed†. Throughout the first and second quatrain Shakespeare has been dismissing a conventional image of perfection as inadequate. In a confidently dismissive tone he clearly argued why he shall not compare his loved one to a summer’s day. The beginning of the third quatrain has a new and justified confidence. A summer’s day will come to an end and therefore is an inadequate image but Shakespeare has discovered a means of conferring immorality upon his loved one â€Å"But thy eternal summer shall not fade† â€Å"but† marks a new found tone, a tone of conviction, the poet seems absolutely convinced that his lines will be â€Å"eternal†. The word â€Å"eternal† is a crucial contrast with the rest of the poem up to this point as all previous mention of time has been concerned with its transient nature. Now the passing of time will make possible growth, but not decline. The â€Å"eternal lines† of the poem will live, as Shakespeare tells us in the final couplet â€Å"So long as men can breathe or eyes can see† and the concluding line with its repetitions and absolute confidence gives the sonnet, which was so preoccupied with things passing, a double immortality, the immortality of his loved one and the immortality of the poem itself â€Å"So long lives this, and this gives life to thee†. The sonnet’s endurance comes from Shakespeare’s ability to capture the essence of love so cleanly and succinctly. It still carries a timeless quality because the theme of love is still something that appeals to the modern day reader. Another of Shakespeare’s poems that deals with the theme of love is sonnet 116 (â€Å"Let me not†) Sonnet 116 is a poem in which Shakespeare is putting his side of an implied argument about the nature of love, this sonnet describes what love should ideally be. The opening two lines of the sonnet are drawn directly from the â€Å"Book of Common Prayer†. The internal rhyme and repetition of the third line â€Å"Which alters when it alteration finds† allows it to resonate with the reader, along with the alliterative a sounds. Within the first quatrain Shakespeare uses a negative â€Å"love is not love† to highlight the importance of constancy in true love â€Å"which alters when it alteration finds† From the beginning there is a defensive and assertive tone, this increases as the poem progresses, as Shakespeare is increasingly confident in his understanding and explanation of love. The â€Å"O† at the beginning of the second quatrain is an exclamation. Love is permanent â€Å"an ever fixed mark†. The exclamation o illustrates the permanent nature of love. Shakespeare also uses a metaphor to describe love in the second quatrain â€Å" It is the star to every wand’ ring bark† and although we can measure the distance from the earth to the stars, we cannot place a value on a star â€Å"Whose worth’s unknown† just as you cannot quantify the value or worth of love. Just as within sonnet 18 time is also described as a destroyer within sonnet 116, someone who wields a sickle and cuts down all before it â€Å"Within his bending sickle’s compass come† However, love is not ruled by time. Unlike the â€Å"rosy lips and cheeks† that are at time’s mercy, love exists beyond its realm or â€Å"compass† and so avoids having to become time’s slave or â€Å"fool†. The sonnet contains a slight shift in emphasis in this line where the poet considers love in terms of time. This change or â€Å"turn† is a common feature of the Shakespearean sonnet. The archaic phrase in the third quatrain â€Å"Love alters not† lends a note of grandeur to the line. The final rhyming couplet projects a vibrant positivity and a sense of hope absent in many of the other sonnets. The poet is committed to his loved one and to the belief that his writing will overcome the transience of time. â€Å"If this be error† his presents a challenge, lays down a gauntlet â€Å"no man ever loved†. In the final line he uses negative words to present a positive â€Å"never† â€Å"nor† â€Å"no†, this is a clever rhetorical device that captures the reader’s attention through the use of repetition. Again Shakespeare’s sonnet 116 has a timeless quality because of the subject he is dealing with just as any 21st century person would not want their loved one to die, Shakespeare does not wish to give time the final say. It is love that he wishes to triumph over all. In sonnet 116 Shakespeare assents with confidence â€Å"Love alters not†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He believes that loves is a more powerful force than time, he believes that love â€Å"looks on tempests and is never shaken†. This lies in stark contrast to his words in sonnet 65; here time is described as something full of fury and â€Å"rage† a force that destroys all before it. Sonnet 65 considers the destructive, unstoppable work of time. The repetition of â€Å"nor† in the opening line â€Å"Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea† is highly effective in illustrating the destructive power of time. The listing of apparently everlasting substances in the opening line and the poet’s acceptance that even these are destroyed by time highlight the impermanence of almost everything. Throughout the sonnet Shakespeare asks five questions in all, each questions seeking to find how the work of time can be counteracted. The rhetorical question in the opening quatrain comes with a great sense of hopelessness â€Å"Whose action is no stronger than a flower? † Beauty and youth seem defenceless when juxtaposed with the power of time. The natural image of the flower – beautiful but fragile- in the face of the raging, powerful mortality which destroys brass, stone, earth and sea is a vivid presentation of the poet’s sense of hopelessness. Again Shakespeare employs images from the natural world to represent beauty. The first quatrain also contains legal imagery, to â€Å"hold a plea† can mean to successfully present a legal case. There is a certain desperation and urgency to the tone of this sonnet. Three lines begin with â€Å"O† signalling the poets despair. The first â€Å"O† opens the second quatrain. This quatrain also contains examples of sibilance â€Å"shall summer’s† the sibilant s sounds accentuate the sense of despair. This sonnet also contains military imagery. The poet compares time to an army laying siege to a town â€Å"Against the wrackful siege† The image of â€Å"battering days† and the mention of â€Å"rocks† and â€Å"gates of steel† in the second quatrain echo the raging destruction of brass and stone in the first. In this sonnet Shakespeare uses the first two quatrains to consider time’s power to destroy, and in the third quatrain he thinks specifically of his loved one. The third quatrain begins with a forceful pause â€Å"O fearful meditation† and the â€Å"where, alack† in the same line adds a despondent and urgent tone. The regular use of punctuation, practically between every word accentuates his point, and the capitalization of â€Å"Time† shows the reverence in which he views time. The poet compares his loved one to a â€Å"jewel† and wonders how they can possibly hide from time and so avoid ageing and death. The poet then goes on to compare time as a pirate or a thief who wishes to take his â€Å"jewel† and bury it in a chest â€Å"Time’s chest†. The answer to preventing his loved one from being destroyed by time is to be found in the poet’s own ability to defy time. His beloved will survive in the black ink which forms the poet’s words on the page. The final two lines of the sonnet offer something of a solution and the tone is hopeful even though the poet is well aware that a miracle is required to defeat the force of time. The final â€Å"O† marks a different tone. It is confident, but â€Å"unless† suggests belief and hope rather than certainty. â€Å"O none, unless this miracle have might, That in black ink my love may still shine bright† The poet closes with an effective paradox, the description of the miracle is emphasises by the paradox of â€Å"black† can â€Å"shine brightly†. Of indescribable linguistic beauty, elegance and complexity, Shakespeares sonnets owe their timeless appeal to their supreme compositional values, the universality of their themes, and their keen insights into the human heart and soul.

Student Study Section free essay sample

Study the timeline above and then read the following quotation. The nation that political problems could more naturally be solved by violence than by debate was firmly entrenched in a country in which for a thousand years civil war has been if not exactly the norm then certainly no rarity. From Paul Preton, The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution and Revenge, 2006 1. Looking at the timeline above showing events in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries, what evidence is there for Preston’s argument? 2. What factors were causing tension in Spain during this time? (Economic, military, religious, political? ) 3. What example of foreign intervention was there in Spain in the 29th century? Review questions 1. Draw a mind map or spider diagram of the key issues dividing Spain by 1931 2. Explain the events that led to the fall of Kind Alfonso in 1931. 3. Looking at the long-term issues in Spain and the political events of the 19th century, what problems was the Second Republic likely to face? Do you consider that war was inevitable by mid 1931? Review questions How did the actions of the Second republic create more tension? In what way did they, in Paul Preston’s words, ensure that Spain’s underlying conflicts ere transmitted into national politics?Research activity Research the Asturian miner’ uprising of 1934. We will write a custom essay sample on Student Study Section or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In Paris, discuss the extent to which you agree that this was an attempted revolution. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review questions 1. To what extent did economic issues lead to a civil war? 2. What was the impact of international events to the growing divisions in Spain Class debate Divide the class into three groups. Each group needs to argue one of the following: * The right wing was responsible for the Spanish Civil War * The left wing was responsible for the Spanish Civil War * Both left and right were equally responsible for the Spanish Civil War   Review activity Look back at the timeline on pp. 235-36. Identify key points where foreign intervention plays a significant role in the fighting. One side will argue that the Nationalists’ strengths won the Spanish Civil War, the other will argue that it was due to Republican weaknesses. The motion is: The strengths of the Nationalists won the Civil War. Each side must have a series of thematic and coherent arguments. To gain a point, they have to support arguments with clear evidence. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Read the following sources and answer the questions: Document A The nationalists maintained that Guernical had been blown up by the Basques themselves, in order to discredit the blameless Nationalists. A later version said that Republican planes dropped bomb to detonate charges dynamite placed in the sewers. Twenty years later it was still a crime in Franco’s Spain to say that Guernical had been destroyed by the Nationalists. Document B Our consciences were uneasy about it. After living through the raid we knew only too well that the destruction had come from the air. The Reds had hardly any planes, we knew that too. Amongst our own, we’d admit the truth: our side had bombed the town and it was a bad thing. But what can we do about it now? We’d say. It was simply better to keep quite. From a statement by Juan Sangroniz, a Nationalists, quoted in Ronald Fraser, Blood of Spain Document C The Germans said the wind caused the bombes to drift eastwards [the target had been a bridge on the river]. In fact Guernica was a military target, being a communications centre close to the line. Retreating republican soldiers could only escape with any ease through Guernical because the bridge over the river was the last one before the sea. But if the aim of the Condor Legion was destroy the bridge why did they not use their supremely accurate stuka bombers? At least part to aim must have been to cause maximum panic and confusion among civilians as well as soldier. The use of incendiary bombs proves that some destruction of buildings and people other than it bridge must have been intended From Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, 1977 Questions 1. In what ways are the views expressed in Document A supported by the views in Document B 2. What reasons are identified in Document C for the bombing of Guernica? STUDENT STUDY SECTION Essay work Planning essay in an essential way to revise topics as you approach examinations. In pairs or groups, plan out the essays below. Your plan should include: * An introduction written out in full * The opening sentence for each paragraph setting out your ‘topic’ * Bullet points setting out the evidence to go in each paragraph * A conclusion written out in full Each group should present it essay plan to the rest of the class. How much overlap of content is three between the different essay plans? Some hints are given for your planning in the first 3 essays Essay 1 Analyze the causes of the Spain Civil War. You could structure this essay thematically, and consider the key issues in the long term and the short term. Your analysis should then explain why there was tension that intensified over time. Remember to include the ‘trigger’ of the civil war, as this explains why the war broke out when it did. * Themes: 1898-1931 –Economic/Social/Polical/Empire * Themes:1931-36 –Land reforms/Church reforms/Social unrest /Reaction of right/Popular Front * Trigger:1936 –The attempted coup. Essays 2 What were the key effects of the Spanish Civil War? You might want to include material from this chapter on the ‘nature’ of the war in this essay, as well as focusing on the more general results. It might be helpful for you to structure your essay in two parts: effects of the war internally on Spain, and then effects of the war external on the other countries. Remember to attempt to adopt a thematic approach. Essay 3 What was the impact of foreign intervention in the Spain Civil War? You could discuss this question in terms of how the ‘nature’ of the war was affected by foreign intervention: * Polarizing the complex political divisions in Spain * Increasing the brutality and casualty rate * Protracting the war. You could then discuss this question in terms of how the ‘outcome’ of the war was affected by foreign intervention† * Germany/Italy/Portugal: Strengthening the military capabilities of the Nationalists * USSR: Weakening the political unity of the Republic, and then undermining its ability to wage war by withdrawing support * NIC and Neutrals benefited the Nationalists Now attempt to make detailed plans for the following essay questions: * In what ways and to what extent, did social and religious divisions lead to war in Spain in 1936? * To what extent was the Spanish Civil War caused by division in Spain and in Spain society? Assess the impact of political and constitutional developments in Spain between 1930 and 1939 * Why did the Constitutional Monarchy in Spain collapse in 1931? * Carlism is a political movement in Spain that looks to establish a separate line of the Bourbon family on the Spanish throne. This line is descended from Carlos V ( 1788-1855). * The Civil Guard was founded in 1844. Its purpose was to control the peasantry, maintain the status quo and stamp out any anti-monarchist, revolutionary sentiment. It was particularly active in the Basque Provinces and was hated by the peasantry. It was later to play a role in supporting the conservative downers in resisting the reforms of the Second Republic. * The destabilization of the Spanish electoral system is the worth nothing that the Spain electoral system ensured that only a small swing in the number of votes cast had a huge effect on the parliamentary system. Thus, although there was only a minor shift of votes from the left to the right, there was a big change in parliamentary power. The same was ro happen in 1926 when the Popular front gained control. The instability created by the electoral system was a contributory factor to the breakdown of the Second Republic.

Use of the Word Analogies in the ESL Classroom

Use of the Word Analogies in the ESL Classroom Using words analogies is a useful way of building vocabulary. Word analogies can be created using many different categories. Here is a simple example of a word analogy: Hot is to cold as up is to down OR hot - cold | up - down This is an example of a word analogy using antonyms. Here are a number of word analogies in a wide variety of categories.   Word Analogies: Antonyms or Opposites hot - cold | up - downblack - white | happy - sadlaugh - cry | rich - poorcrazy - sane | large - small Word Analogies: Relationships Expressing a Part of the Whole eye - head | finger - handcent - dollar | inch - footeraser - pencil | CPU - computerwheel - car | sink - plumbing Word Analogies: Relationships Between Numbers one - two | two - four1/2 - 1 | 10 - 20six - thirty-six | two - four100 - 1,000 | 1,000 - 10,000 Word Analogies: Sequences breakfast - lunch | morning - afternoonMonday - Tuesday | AM - PMwork - earn | plant - harvestleave - arrive | get up - go to sleep Word Analogies: Objects and Their Uses (noun - verb) pen - write | food - eatlawn - mow | coffee - drinksugar - sweeten | ball - throwbutton - push | letter - mail Word Analogies: Objects and Their Users (thing - person) library - student | computer - programmercar - driver | piano - musicianbrush - painter | football - quarterbackdoll - child | cell phone - teenager Word Analogies: Grammatical Relationships I - me | He - himdrive - driven | fly - flownto think - thinking | to shout - shoutingsome - any | already - yet Word Analogies: Group Relationships student - class | member - clubplayer - team | representative - congressjudge - court | policeman - police forceviolin player - orchestra | teller - bank Word Analogies: Cause and Effect (adjective - verb) thirsty - drink | tired - sleepdirty - wash | funny - laughwet - dry | hot - cool downcurious - ask | sad - cry

Legal Citation †Citing Cases with The Bluebook

Legal Citation – Citing Cases with The Bluebook Legal Citation – Citing Cases with The Bluebook The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is a well-known legal citation style guide in the US. Other systems have been introduced in recent years, challenging the dominance of The Bluebook, but if you’re a law student you’ll almost certainly encounter Bluebook-style citations at some point. In this post, we provide an â€Å"anatomy† of a Bluebook case citation to make sure you can reference legal sources clearly and correctly in your written work. Basic Citation Format The basic citation format for a legal case in Bluebook referencing includes four elements: the parties’ names, the case citation, the court, and the year of the ruling. This is presented with the following format: Parties’ Names Case Citation Court Year of Decision DeBoer v. Snyder, 973 F. Supp. 2d 757 (E.D. Mich 2014). You will then give citations in the main body of your text or in a footnote immediately following the relevant passage (accompanied by a signal). In the rest of this post, we’ll look more closely at each of the above elements. Parties’ Names The parties’ names are the title of the case, so you should italicize them and separate them from the rest of the citation with a comma. The case name should also be shortened using approved abbreviations. Case Citation The case citation usually includes a volume number for where the case was published, the abbreviated reporter identification, and the first page of the case. In DeBoer v. Snyder, the case citation can be broken down as follows: Volume Number Reporter Page Number 973 F. Supp. 2d 757 This indicates that the case is reported in volume 973 of the Federal Supplement, Second Series, starting on page 757. Alternatively, if available, you can give a medium-neutral citation instead. Court and Year The ruling court and year of decision should be included in parentheses after the case citation. The name of the court is abbreviated here (e.g., â€Å"Eastern District Michigan† becomes just â€Å"E.D. Mich†). If you’re using a medium-neutral citation or a case citation that already mentions the ruling court and/or year of decision, you dont have to to duplicate it here. Parentheticals Further to the above, Bluebook referencing allows for inclusion of a second set of parentheticals after the court/year for additional information. Usually, this is either substantive information or detail regarding the weight of the authority: 1. Substantive Information This is information provided to clarify the relevance of a citation, either via a direct quotation of the passage in question or a brief explanation. Explanatory phrases should begin with an â€Å"-ing† verb. 2. Weight of Authority This concerns the precedential value of the cited case, including factors such as the relevance of the authority (e.g., whether the ruling was en banc, per curiam, etc.) or other cases cited to support the decision.

Experienced teachers make decisions about educational practice using Essay

Experienced teachers make decisions about educational practice using their understanding of a range of theories about learning. No one theory provides all the a - Essay Example There are four important perspectives in learning theories, behaviorism, humanism, constructivism and cognitivism. In education, behaviorist theories maintain that learning is the result of ‘operant conditioning’ which is a process and both investigated and named by B F Skinner. The word ‘operant’ is used to explain the way in which behavior of an individual operates in a particular person. According to behaviorism theory, behavior of an individual may result either in punishment or in reinforcement. If the behavior results in reinforcement, then chances of same behavior occurring again are higher, at the same time, if a behavior results in punishment, then its chances of happening again are very remote. But we should remember that the issues related to punishment or reinforcement are quite complex. For instance, a punisher or reinforcer is identified within behaviorism by its effect on behavior. So, a punishment may not be regarded as punishment if it does not result in the reduction of a specific behavior. Therefore, behaviorists generally concentrate on measurable ch anges on behavior. ‘Operant conditioning’ uses the consequences of behavior to alter the form of behavior and its occurrence. It basically deals with modification of voluntary behavior. It generally, creates five consequences such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment and extinction. It is important to note that it is not the individuals who are reinforced or punished; rather it is his or her response which is reinforced or punished. In ‘operant conditioning’ context, the terms positive and negative are, generally, not used in their popular meaning, but rather positive means to addition and negative refers to subtraction. 4. Negative punishment: -It occurs when a response (behavior) results removal of a

International Financial Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Financial Management - Essay Example Interest rate swaps are especially useful where on one hand, a firm wants to receive/make payment in the form of a variable interest rate and on the other hand another firm which prefers instead to receive/make payment in the form of fixed interest rate so as to limit its future risk. The first swap was executed over thirty years ago (Corb, 2012). The rationale behind such a derivative instrument is that, both parties to the financial arrangement have their own distinct priorities and requirements such that in swapping, there is a mutual benefit to be derived. This benefit arises from three major elements of the capital market: The comparative advantage, information asymmetries and fixed rate debt vis-a-vis the embedded options (Flavell, 2010). In essence, the monetary gain one party makes through the swap contract is equal to the monetary loss of the counterparty to the contract. This is to say that although there is the overall benefit of a minimized risk arising from uncertainties within the financial market, one party to the contract will incur some monetary loss. ... The most common forms of interest rate swaps include: Fixed for floating interest rate swap Floating for fixed interest swaps Same currency swaps Different currency swaps Discussion For firms such as ABC limited, a variable for fixed interest rate swap is very desirable. Firstly, with regard to synthetic fixed rate financing (also referred to as signaling). The asymmetric nature of the information environment means that firms themselves possess a better view of their levels of credit risks. As such, they require a credible way(s) of transmitting such information to the investors within the market. The firm’s borrowing of a short term debt instrument and swapping it for a fixed debt instrument signals good levels of credit of the firm to the market (Flavell, 2010). A firm is only able to do this in light of its improving future prospects. Any subsequent floating/variable debt instruments sought after will be at better and better rates (since the market can in itself recognize t his) provided that the market is sure that the firm’s projected level of credit is sound. Ordinarily, the market reacts harshly to any false signaling by firms about their credit levels. The market conducts a comparison of the firm’s signal now and its performance in the subsequent period; where the firm’s credit has not risen, the market assumes that the signaling was false and retrospectively the market may downgrade the firm’s credit rating by more than usual. Secondly, the underlying principal is not exchanged or swapped. This means that the maximum loss is substantially minimized to the net payments to the counterparties of the swap contract. Additionally, where the interest rate on floating debt

Indian tribe`s inherent sovereign authority Essay Example for Free

Indian tribe`s inherent sovereign authority Essay INTRODUCTION: U.S Chief Justice John Marshall, in his milestone trilogy of   his decisions on Indian law in 1] Cherokee Nation v.Georgia 2] Johnson v.Mclntosh and 3] Worcester v. Georgia framed the foundation for Indian law viz. Indian tribes are under the trust protection of the federal government which stands good even today. As such, many tribes are enjoying the quasi-sovereignty status and have organized their own governments together with functional legislative, executive and judicial branches. Indian tribal courts function more or less in their Anglo-American colleagues and offer an intra-tribal tool for dispute resolution. The Supreme Court held in â€Å"Oliphant v.Suquanmish Indian Tribe â€Å"that for want of congressional action, tribes lacks inherent jurisdiction to punish outsiders.   Congress yet to legislatively recognize the Oliphant by extending jurisdiction to tribal courts to try criminally any non-Indians for the felony committed in the Indian regions This research paper will divulge how this jurisdictional predicament causes a practicable problem in United States Judiciary and possible ways and means to address the issue. INDIAN SOVEREIGN AUTHORITY TO EXERCISE CRIMINAL JURISDICTION OVER NON-INDIANS- AN ANALYSIS: Crimes against native Indians are unleashed by non-Indians on daily basis. Crimes committed by non-Indians are cognizable offence that can be prosecuted only by federal district court by federal prosecutors. Unfortunately, many federal prosecutors have abandoned their duty to pursue crimes in Indian country committed by non-Indians due to overburden. The emergence of the Indian courts owed its origin to the tribal justice systems that predate the European settlement of America. On the basis of the age old convention, Congress has recognized the sovereign authority of tribes to maintain their own courts. But, Congress has limited that sovereignty as tribal courts have little jurisdiction over non-Indians .This is mainly intended to ensure that Indians are guaranteed the same constitutional rights as other Americans. As a result, tribal courts over the last two decades have lost their elite authority to try cases involving grave felonies and to enforce criminal penalties on non-Indians. In the year 1990, Supreme Court stripped Indian tribal courts of the power to hear cases involving Indians of a different tribe. But the Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs later voted to reinstate that right to tribes for the next two years. [1992 to 1994]. In 1968, Congress established the Indian Civil Rights Act to offer on tribes requirements akin to those found in the Bill of Rights. There are about 147 tribal courts that exercise jurisdiction over nearly two million Indians in the United States in the year 1992. Tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction over civil cases that arise between Indians on the reservations. But, if the plaintiff or defendant is other than Indian, state courts may have a simultaneous or even exclusive exercise rights to hear the case. In, â€Å"Oliphant v.Suquamish Indian Tribe† , 435 U.S, 55 L.Ed , 2d , 98 S.Ct, 48 U.S.L.W .4210 it was held that no inherent rights is ascribed to any Indian tribal courts to prosecute and punish non-Indians for offenses committed on Indian lands. It was the contention of the Indian tribes that jurisdiction is automatically conferred on them for trying any offenses of criminal nature on non-Indians in tribal lands as Supreme court made an opinion describing Indian tribes as â€Å" quasi –sovereign entities’. However, Supreme Court has observed in the present case that whenever efforts have been exercised in the past, it has been observed that there exists no jurisdiction. The tribal is having no authority to try non-Indians as it was established by earlier judicial opinions and also according to the general view of the executive authorities. But Judge Marshall, joined by the Chief justice dissented in the above case by taking the view that the power of preserve order on the reservation was a sine quo non of sovereignty that the Suquamish originally possessed. He further noted that in the absence of positive extraction of such rights by any treaty or statue ,the tribal enjoy as a necessary aspect of their sovereignty the right to try and punish all persons who commit offenses against tribal law within the reservation. In the past years, several Supreme Court rulings have drastically delineated the power of American Indians to govern their territories. The High Court ruled in 1978 that tribal courts cannot prosecute whites or other non-Indians for some felonies committed on tribal land. In one case, the justice held that a tribal court has no jurisdiction over crimes committed on that tribe’s land by members of another tribe. There are certain rulings that restricted Indian authority in taxation and zoning. Tribal leaders argue that U.S government apparent move away from recognizing ‘inherent sovereignty â€Å"of the Indian nations, which predate the arrival of whites to this continent makes them to worry. Though, the tribal leaders were not asking to overturn the Supreme Court’s ruling in Oliphant v. Squamish Indian Tribe but they were demanding to overturn the High Court rulings in Duro V. Reina, which prohibited the Salt River Prima-Maricopa Indian Community in Arizona from prosecuting on a misdemeanor of weapons charge by an Indian man who lived in Salt River but was a member of a tribe in California. Thus, the rulings left a judicial void in states that do not assume jurisdiction over such misdemeanors and Congress temporarily restored jurisdiction to the tribes during 1990. 2.1 CRIMINAL JURISDICTION TO TRY NON –INDIANS TO COMBAT TERRORIST THREAT: In their effort to revive an amendment to the Homeland Security Act that would offer criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians to combat terrorist threats on Indian lands. But opponents were of the view that it will topple a 25-years –old Supreme Court decision â€Å" limiting and defining Indian sovereignty â€Å" and could lead to tribal power grabs which may affect of millions of non-Indians. Further, there is a proposal to reclassify the tribal governments as â€Å"states â€Å"under HSA law which facilitate tribes to receive sufficient federal funding and technical expertise to play a meaningful role in fighting terrorism. During 2003, the Senate Indian Affairs committee tried to add some amendments to homeland security bill but it was not successful as some group hit the panic button claiming that amendment would authorise control over all people for all purposes. The vested group fears that there would be other jurisdictional grabs by the tribal governments and tribes could exert authority over non-Indians by ignoring the fact that non-Indians cannot vote in tribal elections. The proposed amendment which has been officially designated as S.578 and the department itself has supported the first 12 sections of the amendment or those that would authorise the reclassification of tribal governments as states [not local government] in dealing with terrorism. But as per Heffelfinger, who is also chairman of the Attorney General Advisory Committee’s Native American issues subcommittee commented that the departments itself is not supporting section 13 , which would offer tribes the power to â€Å" enforce and adjudicate violations of civil , criminal and regulatory laws committed by any person on land under the jurisdiction of an Indian tribal government. But, as per 2000 census, non –Indians account for more than 48% of reservation residents who live on or near Indian reservations from discrimination â€Å"by state, federal or tribal government or their policies. Some critics view the proposed amendment to the Homeland Security Act violates the 1978 â€Å"Oliphant v.Suquamish Indian Tribe† rulings where Supreme Court observed that tribes do not have criminal jurisdiction to try and punish non-Indians. In real situation, the state or federal government is toothed with the power to arrest and try criminal offenders who are not Indians on Indian lands.   In other words, there is no need to arm the tribal government to initiate criminal proceedings on non-Indians on tribal lands as the state or federal government has adequate power to execute the same. [1] 2.2 OVERBURDENS OF FEDERAL COURTS: One the problem faced by tribal is that some of the felonies committed by non-Indians on tribal have been let off due to overburden of cases in federal courts and Supreme Court judgment which   had declared that non-Indians can not be prosecuted by the tribal courts. For instance, military courts do not have jurisdiction to prosecute the civilians who have infringed military’s interest. In such cases, â€Å"special assistant United States attorneys† [SAUSA’s] have the authority to prosecute such violators who have committed crimes against military personnel and property. The same strategy can be followed in the tribal cases also. Thus, the department should authorize Indian prosecutors to sue in the federal courts for the crimes committed by the non-Indians within Indian country.   2.3 USE OF MEHTAMPHETAMINE: Another issue encountered by the American tribes and tribal groups is their relentless fight against use of methamphetamine which they regard an epidemic on tribal lands. Lummi Nation of Washington, an American tribe is waging war with meth by imposing rigorous punishment to offenders. Some tribes are addressing the issue through new drug courts. Methamphetamine production and trafficking on tribal reservation with huge geographic areas or tribes adjacent to the U.S. –Mexico border is rampant. As the tribal states enjoy sovereign status, criminals are generally not subject to state jurisdiction in most of the cases. As the local law enforcement authorities have no jurisdiction in Indian country and tribal law enforcement agencies take the responsibility to enforce the relevant law enforcement functions. To combat the use of meth in tribal areas, Indian Tribes Methamphetamine Act of 2007 and Indian Tribes Methamphetamine Reduction Grants Act of 2007 were introduced in January 2007.   The legislation would permit Indian tribes to be eligible for funding through the department of Justice to exterminate the scourge of meth production, sale and usage in Native American communities. Enough safeguard measures are built in to avoid any potential misrepresentation of the above legislations. It has been clearly stated in section 2 [a] [4] of the bill , the Department of Justice’s Bureau of Justice Assistance is toothed with power to award grant funds to a state ,territory or Indian tribe to â€Å" explore ,detain and indict individuals â€Å"   involved in illegal meth activities. Further, it does not authorize a grantee state, Indian tribe or state to pursue law enforcement activities that it otherwise has short of jurisdictional authority to pursue. 2.4 PUBLIC LAW 280 Normally, states do not have jurisdiction over the internal legal of the sovereign tribal governments. Under certain circumstances, Congress has extended special exceptions this general principle. Under Public Law 280, six states were given exclusive jurisdiction over the Indian country within the state borders. Thus, states like New York, Kansas have the exclusive right over to prosecute the crime committed within the Indian country as the federal government has ceded its jurisdiction. Federal government ceded their prosecuting authority to states in these states. But it has created unfavorable situations as most states are reluctant and intransigence to cognize crime on Indian reservations seriously. Many state district attorneys are reluctant to exercise their limited resources on Indian crime. Thus, Public Law 280 has resulted in lawlessness in almost all Indian reservations. Ceding the federal authority over Indian territories to states has ended in a lacuna. It is painful to note that even if a state government has inherent authority in a particular Indian region, it sometimes lacks institutional strength to exercise authority in that region. Further, there exists always simmering tension between Indians and state governments. It is to be observed that since Worcester v.Georgia, states have no authority or very little authority over Indian country. The real reason for tension between tribal and state government is the criticism of action of state police department as they always rubbing on the wrong side of the tribal cultural practices. A study conducted by Carole Goldberg Ambrose[2] revealed that relationships between state and tribal are often got off to potholed and sometime unfeasible. Frequently, California tribal members complained that when state police tried to solve the tribal problems, they often failed as they were disrespectful to tribal sovereignty, lacked cultural compassion and always deployed excessive force. Further, if the alleged offence is a violation of generally applicable federal statutes like sedition and mail theft, the federal government is alone having exclusive jurisdiction to try the offence and natives are not exempted from such offence 2.5 OLIPHANT V. SUQUAMISH INDIAN TRIBE’- AN ANALYSIS: In, ‘Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe’ case, Supreme Court held   that as the tribal court lacks inherent jurisdiction to prosecute non-Indians for the felonies committed on Indian jurisdiction and recommended that it is the Congress to decide whether Indians tribes should finally be authorized to try non-Indians . Thus, Supreme Court decision may not be final and binding since Congress retains authority in exercise of its plenary power. Oliphant case centered around the incidents that happened on the Suquamish Reservation located near Port Madison, Washington. Indian tribes had waived all of their land claims in Washington state under the Treaty of Point Elliott which was signed in 1855 and accepted to settle on a 7300 –acre reservation located near Seattle. The tribes adopted a criminal code in 1973 and any infringement of tribal’s criminal code is prosecuted in the Suquamish Indian provisional Court. It is the claim of the tribes that they have jurisdiction to try non-Indians for any violation or infringement in their land. In support of their claim, they have displayed billboards in prominent places at the entrances to the Port Madison Reservation warning the public that entry onto the Reservation would be deemed implied consent to the criminal jurisdiction of the Suquamish tribal court and one may hilarious to note that Suquamish tribal specifically excluded non-Indians from serving on tribal court as juries. Supreme Court had placed the burden of proof on the tribe to substantiate its contention of jurisdiction. The tribe argued that its jurisdiction over non-Indians emerged involuntarily from the Tribe’s retained innate powers of government over the Port Madison Indian Reservation. Tribe has argued that flow of criminal jurisdiction is automatic over all persons on a reservation –Indian or non-Indian and is arising out of a ‘sine qua non ‘of tribal sovereignty. Supreme Court has rejected the argument of tribal claiming inherent jurisdiction on multiple grounds. Supreme Court concluded that Congress had positively expressed its intention not to grant Indian tribes the power to punish non-Indian after thoroughly examining the opinions of attorney generals, history of treaties, legislative history and district court decisions. Supreme Court once again asserted that Congress which is being law making authority is having sole discretion to decide whether the tribal can prosecute non-Indians for felonies in their land. In the Oliphant’s case, Justice Marshall joined by Chief Justice Burger took the opposite view as the Marshall believed that tribes processed the innate jurisdiction over non-Indians and that congressional action was necessary to strip off Indians of that jurisdiction. Oliphant decision was a major set back to Indian community claim of sovereignty in the following respect: It publicized that Indians were toothless to dissuade non-Indians from committing crimes against them. Tribes viewed that Supreme Court decision had indeed handcuffed their law enforcement activities. Tribes viewed the decision as a major blow on their powers to safeguard their own people. Decision culminated to an awkward situation to tribes by restricting their power to judge, prosecute or punish with tribal law and tribal courts, the non-Indians who commit felonies on tribal land. 2.6 DURO V.REINA- AN ANALYSIS: Duro v.Reina is a subsequent case after Oliphant. This case has further minimized the power of the tribal court to punish â€Å"outsiders â€Å", people who are not members of the tribe. Albert Duro was the member of one sect of Indian tribe namely Torres-Maritinez Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians. It was alleged that Duro killed a boy on the Salt River Indian reservation. Salt River Indian tribes attempted to prosecute Duro in their tribal court. The federal district court restrained the Salt River Prima –Maricopa Indian Tribe to prosecute Duro who belongs to Torres tribe. Thus, Supreme Court also concurred the federal district court view and held that Indian tribes did not have jurisdiction over Indians who were members of other Indian tribes. This made the Congress to exercise its plenary power and Supreme Court decision was amended or altered by the Congress through amendment U.S.C 1301 to authorize the tribal courts to exercise â€Å"criminal jurisdiction over all Indian and not just member of Indians. Critic’s view that Supreme Court had crushed the Indian rights is a bit of hypocritical as the Congress can always make use of its plenary power –a-type of legislative veto –to correct the intrinsic relationship as articulated by the Court. 2.7 ANALYSIS OF SURVEY OF U.S. JUSTICE DEPARTMENT: According to survey conducted by Justice Department of U.S., American Indians suffer from certain violent crimes like robbery, rape at a rate twice the national average. About 30,000 crimes of violence are committed against Indians each year. Native Indians complained that their attackers were under the influence of alcohol or meth at a greater than the national average. It is alarming to note that Indians were fatalities of interracial violence at a startling rate of 72% and 91% of sexual assaults against the tribal members. Further, offenders against Indian tribes were about 70% It is to be noted that a crime committed against an Indian by non-Indian which occurs outside of Indian country is subject to state jurisdiction and therefore is not reported in the above statistics. Thus, the above statistics reveal a disturbing picture of crimes against Indians and Indians face a disproportionately higher rate of violent crimes than any other races in U.S.A. For instance, Indian victims are reporting about 30,000 possible violent crimes to police each year and out of this, police could not solve more than 28,000 incidents or about 94% of the crimes reported remain uninvestigated or go unpunished. Further, Indians are also affected by the property crimes and victimless crimes committed by the non-Indians and these were not included in the above statistics since these were of civil nature.   The main reason for such alarming rates of criminal reports are being uninvestigated is mainly due to great distance between federal courts and tribes and overburdened law enforcing department. One of the allegations against Indian judiciary is that Indian courts do not bestow equal justice to non-Indians. For example, in Oliphant case, the Court took note of the fact that non-Indians were excluded from occupying juries’ role in Suquamish.   Thus, a doubt arises whether non-Indian constitutional right to be tried by an Indian jury could deliver unquestionable justice to the accused. The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 ensures basic due process protections to Indians who are tried in tribal courts and to ensure non-Indians offenders rights, the same process of protection can be extended to non-Indians. As such, non-Indians allegation that tribal courts are iniquitous may not hold good. 2.8 POSSIBLE SUGGESTIONS FOR AVOIDING OLIPHANT TYPE OF INCIDENTS IN FUTURE: Federal court is already overburdened with cases like violations under a]Patriotic Act , b]Money Laundering Act 3] RICO 4] Narcotic Offenses 5] Interstate Crimes 6] National Security Offenses 7] Stock Exchange Commission 8] Other type of Crimes .Whereas , offenses committed by non-Indian in tribal areas are of nature of minor offences like 1] reckless or speed driving 2] drunk driving 3] petty assault 4] petty theft 5] Vandalism 6] Littering   7] Parking Violations . Naturally federal prosecutors do not give more importance to these offenses and hence lion’s share of these offenses went unpunished. To instill confidence on tribal community, Congress should seriously think of creating exclusive federal courts which may be designated as â€Å"special courts â€Å" for prosecuting offenses committed on tribal by non-Indians in tribal areas.   For instance , in the District of North Dakota , Chief Judge Rodney Webb to address the problem faced   by Indians against felonies committed by non-Indians held meetings with the officials for their prosecution As per ICRA [Indian Civil Rights Act], Indian tribes may not impose any penalty or punishment which is longer than for a term of one year and a fine of $ 5000 or both. This clearly demonstrate that tribal courts have limited authority to try minor offenses like less serious felonies or misdemeanors there by leaving serious crimes to the federal government . Further, there is a misconception among non-Indians that tribal courts are not like Anglo-American tribunals. It is pertinent to note the remarks made by Justice Rehnquist in Oliphant that â€Å"some Indian trial court systems have become progressively much classy and resemble in many ways their state counter parts†. Hence, non-Indians should be properly educated and Congress should see that they are convinced by drafting a new legislation extending tribal courts power to prosecute non-Indians within the parameters designed by the Congress in this regard. One another remedy is to depute special law enforcement officer to investigate or prosecute the crime. A â€Å"special assistant district attorney â€Å"may be appointed to represent the district attorney for a particular case or a special investigating officer may be deputed to execute restricted law enforcement functions. Thus, the power to deputize is also known as a statutory grant. A statutory grant is having inherent power to specially deputize any higher officials. The deputization will be more advantageous as it would satisfy the interest of the all concerned including tribal and non-Indian offenders though the offenders will be punished under federal or state laws not under the tribal laws. CONCLUSION: De-facto immunity is being used as scapegoat by non-Indian offenders against Indians. It is really a shame that American judicial system is dissuading Indians to punish the non-Indian offenders who have committed felony in their lands under tribal criminal laws. It is real predicament that majority of the crimes against Indians by non-Indians escape punishment. The Oliphant v Suquamish Indian Tribe case is a severe blow to the Indian legitimate rights which Congress should come forward to redress. Congress should exercise its plenary power as it had done in Supreme Court decision in Duro v.Reina which was later amended or altered by the Congress through amendment U.S.C 1301 to authorize the tribal courts to exercise â€Å"criminal jurisdiction over all Indian and not just member of Indians. Further , to instill confidence on tribal community, Congress should seriously think of creating exclusive federal courts which may be designated as â€Å"special courts â€Å" for prosecuting offenses committed on tribal by non-Indians in tribal areas. One another remedy is to depute special law enforcement officer to investigate or prosecute the crime. The deputization will be more advantageous as it would satisfy the interest of the all concerned including tribal and non-Indian offenders though the offenders will be punished under federal or state laws not under the tribal laws. Deputization will assimilate all law enforcement agencies together to work unitedly.   Deputization is the need of the hour as it will bring all the parties involved under a single umbrella within the current jurisdictional. Further, as in the case of military courts which do not have jurisdiction to prosecute the civilians who have infringed military’s interest and in such cases, â€Å"special assistant United States attorneys† [SAUSA’s] have the authority to prosecute such violators who have committed crimes against military personnel and property. The same strategy can be followed in the tribal cases also. Thus, the department should authorize Indian prosecutors to sue in the federal courts for the crimes committed by the non-Indians within Indian country. BIBILIOGRAPHY Chiu, Elaine M. Culture as Justification, Not Excuse. American Criminal Law Review 43, no. 4 (2006): 1317+. Christofferson, Carla. Tribal Courts Failure to Protect Native American Women: A Reevaluation of the Indian Civil Rights Act. Yale Law Journal 101, no. 1 (1991): 169-185. Dutton, Bertha P. American Indians of the Southwest. Revised ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983. French, Laurence Armand. Addictions and Native Americans. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2000. Griffiths, Curt Taylor. Natives and Criminal Justice Policy: the Case of Native Policing. Canadian Journal of Criminology 26, no. 2 (1984): 147-160. Henderson, Dwight F. Congress, Courts, and Criminals: The Development of Federal Criminal Law, 1801-1829. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985. Johansen, Bruce Elliott, ed. The Encyclopedia of Native American Legal Tradition. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998. La Prairie, Carol. Aboriginal Over-Representation in the Criminal Justice System: A Tale of Nine Cities. Canadian Journal of Criminology 44, no. 2 (2002): 181+. Lawson, Paul E. When States Attorneys General Write Books on Native American Law: A Case Study of Spaeths American Indian Law Desk book. American Indian Quarterly 19, no. 2 (1995): 229-236. Nielsen, Marianne O. and Robert A. Silverman, eds. Native Americans, Crime, and Justice. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996 Nourse, V.F. Reconceptualizing Criminal Law Defenses. University of Pennsylvania Law Review 151, no. 5 (2003): 1691+. Parman, Donald Lee. Indians and the American West in the Twentieth Century. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994. Pevar, Stephen L. The Rights of Indians and Tribes: The Basic ACLU Guide to Indian and Tribal Rights. 2nd ed. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992. Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. Ramirez, Deborah A. A Brief Historical Overview of the Use of the Mixed Jury. American Criminal Law Review 31, no. 4 (1994): 1213-1224. [1] â€Å"Indian Wants Jurisdiction to Combat Terrorism Threat â€Å", Washington Times, Jan 26, 2004. [2] Carole Goldberg –Ambrose, â€Å"Public Law 280 and the problem of Lawlessness in California Indian Country, 44 UCLA L.Rev. 1405 [1997].

Living the Aboriginal Way Essay -- indigenous, culture, education, crim

The Aboriginal people are one of few indigenous people left in our world. The Aboriginals live in Australia and have, as many indigenous people/groups, been treated badly for years. However they are being treated better now than before, but as an old group with old traditions it is hard to live in the same world as people who do not live by their culture. First in this article Aboriginal history will be compared to present time, succeeded by/before a description of two issues the indigenous people of Australia has to deal with in present time, and lastly there will be a conclusion. The Aboriginal people arrived to Australia from Asia around 50,000 years ago, however they migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago. The Aborigines are the indigenous people of Australia. They were the only people living on the continent until the colonization in 1788 by the UK. The biggest consequence for this colonization is that the British brought with them diseases such as measles, tuberculosis and smallpox. In the 19th century, smallpox was the biggest cause of Aboriginal deaths. Aboriginal people speak mostly English, but they do have a variety of their own language that they speak in phrases and words to create an Aboriginal English language. Before the English settled in Australia, the Aborigines had over 250 languages, as opposed to now when they have around 15 that they speak. They traditionally believed in animist spiritual frameworks, compared to present time where only 1% still believe in animist and 73% believe in Christianity. The animist spiritual framewo rk includes belief in animals, Mother Nature and they have a deep love for nature. However we now see that the Australian indigenous culture has changed. Aboriginal cult... ...f domestic violence and community disturbance. The Indigenous people of Australia have sadly had a lot to deal with since the first European settlement in 1788, such as diseases, colonization and being removed from their families. The Aboriginal are not allowed to live as they did before, as new laws have been created for the people. The Aboriginal is forced to live as any other Australian in Australia, even though they are sometimes treated differently. Some people believe that these people have been treated badly through the years, and many agree with that. The Aboriginal was basically treated as animals for a long time. It was their country, but they were still treated, as they were the bad people. The Aboriginals now have a lot to deal with such as education and crimes, but the Australian people try their best to help these people out of all the difficulties.

Effects of Desertification

Environmental problems Of all the global environmental problems, desertification is, perhaps, the most threatening for poor rural people. The most accepted definition of desertification states that it is land degradation in arid, semiarid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Drylands cover almost 40 percent of the total land surface of the world and are inhabited by approximately 1 billion humans dispersed over more than 100 countries. These people include many of the world's most vulnerable, marginalized, and politically weak citizens. In spite of the progress in the understanding of the ecological dimension of this phenomenon, few communities' wellbeing has improved by the myriad action plans and activities carried out by local, regional, or national organizations, particularly in Africa. A growing body of evidence suggests that a closer look at the social system and the role of its components is critical to understanding this frequent outcome. Drylands are characterized by water scarcity stemming from the conjunction of low water offer (i. e. , precipitation) and high water demand (i. . , water lost to the atmosphere as water vapor from soil via evaporation and from plants through transpiration). Drylands' precipitation is highly variable through the year and occurs in infrequent, discrete, and largely unpredictable events. In turn, the high evaporative demand of the atmosphere, resulting from high air temperatures, low humidity, and abundant solar radiation, determines that water availability is the dominant con trolling factor for biological processes such as plant growth and herbivore productivity. Thus drylands, though not barren, are ecosystems of low and highly variable productivity capable of limited human settlement and vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbance. The proximate causes of desertification are complex and vary from region to region. The European Mediterranean region has a long history of human misuse. War, urbanization, farming, and tourism have, over the years, altered vegetation to such an extent that, at present, virtually no natural vegetation exists there and soil erosion is ubiquitous. In contrast, Australian drylands have experienced extensive degradation only recently. The introduction of domestic livestock by Europeans in the late 1880s, together with the fences used to concentrate these animals and the suppression of fire, drastically reduced the abundance of perennial grasses, leaving more soil exposed to erosion by water or wind, and triggered shrub encroachment. In the Sahelian region of Africa, where the concept of desertification was first coined at the beginning of the 20th century, the replacement of the original vegetation by crops, the increase of grazing pressure over the remaining lands, and the collection of wood for fuel resulted in a reduction of the biological or economic productivity of the land. In particular, inappropriate use of heavy machinery, deficient irrigation schemes, and grazing management practices led to soil erosion, salinization, and overgrazing. Any attempt to assess the impact of desertification on human societies should first acknowledge the difference between the ways water-limited ecosystems shape the functioning of social systems and the effects of desertification itself. Desertification imposes an additional constraint on human well-being by further reducing the limited ecosystem goods (e. g. , food, timber, water) and services (e. g. , soil maintenance, erosion control, carbon sequestration) that drylands provide. Failure to address this difference would lead to an overestimation of the desertification effects. Additionally, the manifestations of desertification vary widely, depending on the capacity of each country to mitigate its impacts. For example, in Africa it resulted in declining productivity and intensifying food insecurity and widespread famines, whereas in the Mediterranean region desertification seriously threatens water supply, while many regions of northern Europe are experiencing an increase in dust deposition due to north African soil erosion. In poor countries with a large proportion of their territory in arid and semiarid regions, desertification may trigger a downward spiral where a significant amount of a nation's human and financial resources are devoted to combating past desertification effects, leaving less available to invest in health, education, industry, and governmental institutions. The ultimate precarious social conditions thus developed generally lead to migrations, exacerbating urban sprawl, and may bring about internal and cross-boundary social, ethnic, and political strife. Approaches to the desertification problem broadly fall into two competing perspectives: the predominant global environmental management (GEM) discourse and the populist discourse. Whereas the former discourse rests on neoliberal values and Malthusian thinking, the latter has its philosophical roots in the self-reliant advocacy derived from the dependency schools of the 1970s and 1980s. The GEM discourse depicts overpopulation in drylands as the main problem leading to the degradation of the ecosystems on which they depend. As seen in the GEM discourse, the global problem of desertification requires a global solution. Therefore, GEM supporters promote topdown, interventionist and technocentrist solutions implemented through international institutions and conventions, such as the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. On the contrary, the populist discourse–populist in the sense that it positively portrays the acts of local people–emphasizes that the marginalization of smallholders and pastoralists started during the colonial period and was subsequently deepened by global capitalism, transnational corporations, and northern consumers as the principal causes of land overexploitation and degradation. International assistance in the form of debt per nature exchanges or technological transferences is regarded as part of the problem itself. Rather, the populist discourse focuses on local or traditional knowledge and community-based action as major sources to overcome environmental problems. However, despite its diametrically opposed explanations of the desertification problem, neither discourse denies an impending crisis caused by desertification. Why, almost a century after its first detection, does desertification continue to be among the most important environmental problems faced by humankind? Though no single answer exists, there are some arguments to sketch an answer. Undoubtedly the inherent complexity of the desertification phenomenon hampers almost every phase of the sequence leading to the mitigation or control of an environmental problem (i. e. , first detection, general recognition, agreement on regulation). For instance, a long period elapsed between when French foresters first perceived what they called â€Å"the desert advance† and the widespread diffusion of the desertification tragedy that took place in the Sahelian region of Africa after a series of drought years at the beginning of the 1970s; today improvements in our understanding of rangelands functioning and climatic variability allow for faster detection and prevention. These advances show that vegetation dynamics in drylands may remain seemingly unaffected by an increase in land use pressure until there is a sudden shift to a lower-productivity stable state, with stochastic climate events, such as severe droughts, acting as triggers. Additionally, incomplete or inadequate scientific knowledge, together with the urgent need of integrative solutions for the Sahelian drama, may have driven actors to resort to the first workable options, leading to erroneous regulations at that time. However, regulations of this kind are not dependent on scientific knowledge alone but also on political pressure mechanisms. Thus an explanation of the failure to achieve sound regulation needs to consider political issues as well. The predominance of the GEM discourse, despite the poor performance of top-down solutions to â€Å"unsustainable† resource management, can be explained by its convenience for the interests of three main groups involved in the desertification issue: national governments, international aid donors, and scientists. National governments benefit not only from foreign financial aid but also from the use of desertification as the basis for severely repressive social control. International donors and institutions find the problem of desertification a reason unto itself for their involvement, whereas scientists may highlight the global nature and severity of the desertification problem as a means to obtain research funds. On the contrary, the bottom-up approaches promoted by the populist discourse do not fit the terms and conditions of bilateral and multilateral funding and instead stress the principles of participation and decentralization. It is apparent that the progress achieved in our comprehension of desertification has not been matched by an improvement in the regulations aimed at mitigating its consequences. While the accumulation of knowledge generated during the past decades provides evidence against both discourses' main tenets, they nonetheless remain influential in the political and scientific arenas. Future contributions to the solution of the desertification problem require the synthesis of recent social and ecological advances into a new synthetic framework that overcomes the constraints upon the solutions imposed by the GEM and populist discourses. Social scientists hope that a new desertification paradigm–that is, the dryland development paradigm, which represents a convergence of insights from both discourses–is emerging. Bibliography: 1) Adger, W. Neil, Tor A. Benjaminsen, Katrina Brown, and Hanne Svarstad. 2001. Advancing a Political Ecology of Global Environmental Discourses. † Development and Change 32:681-715. 2) Herrmann, Stefanie M. and Charles F. Hutchinson. 2005. â€Å"The Changing Contexts of the Desertification Debate. † Journal of Arid Environments 63:538-55. 3) Reynolds, James F. and D. Mark Stafford-Smith. 2002. Global Desertification: Do Humans Create Deserts? Berlin: Dahlem University Press. 4) Veron, Santiago R. , Jose M. Paruelo, and Martin Oesterheld. 2006. â€Å"Assessing Desertification. † Journal of Arid Environments 66:751-63.

Mhp Nursing Shared Governance Essay

What is Shared Decision Making †¢ Point of Service Decision Making – where staff who perform the work participate in decision making affecting their environment †¢ A 30 year old decision making model meant to give equal voice to nurses †¢ A decentralized style of management that creates an environment of empowerment Shared Decision Making A Journey Not a Destination We TO They Why Shared Decision Making †¢ Essential to achieving the best patient outcomes by giving nurses control of their practice – they know best! †¢ Recognizes the power already present in a role and allows that power to be expressed legitimately †¢ Builds autonomy into the profession Shared Decision Making – The Process A dynamic process that is centered on 4 critical principles of fully empowered organizations: Partnership Accountability Equity Ownership Operational Definitions †¢ Partnership – nursing staff and leadership work together at the unit and system level to move practice forward and achieve the best outcomes †¢ Accountability – staff and managers share ownership for the outcomes of our work and are answerable to our colleagues, the institution and the community we serve Operational Definitions †¢ Equity – Integrating roles to achieve outcomes; everyone contributes within the scope of their role as part of the team †¢ Ownership – Everyone must realize that success is linked to how well they do their jobs Shared Decision Making Our Model Professional Advancement Council Administrative Council Safety First C rd oo ina tin g Quality & Safety Council Cou ncil Unit Patient Research & Evidence Based Nursing Practice Council Great Place to Work Professional Nurse Council Family Community Clinical Excellence Councils Coo Education Council rdin atin g Cou ncil Think of yourself as a Patient APN Council Research Council Financial Strength CCHS Shared Decision Making Councils †¢ Quality & Safety Council †¢ Research & Evidence Based Nursing Practice Council †¢ Education Council †¢ Professional Nurse Council †¢ Coordinating Council Education Council ï‚ § Collaborates with unit and system councils to identify educational needs, develop educational priorities with appropriate time lines and determine resources for all education impacting the Department of Patient Care Services ï‚ § Disseminates approved educational strategies to unit leaders and support staff ï‚ § Develops and maintains a communication network between unit and systems councils Research & Evidence Based Nursing Practice Council ï‚ § Promotes the spirit of inquiry in clinical nursing practice ï‚ § Evaluates the literature in order to use best practices to transform clinical practice at the point-of-care Quality & Safety Council ï‚ § Provides planned, systematic and collaborative approaches to oversee and direct quality and safety relating to the nursing process, functions and services provided. ï‚ § The council’s scope includes performance improvement and safety measures throughout the Department of Patient Care Services Professional Nurse Council ï‚ § Works to enhance the professional image of nursing within CCHS and the community ï‚ § Supports the spirit of the professional advancement program ï‚ § Identifies and supports implementation of recruitment and retention strategies Coordinating Council ï‚ § Provides overall coordination of the systems councils. ï‚ § Reviews the system strategic plan and adopts the plan for the Department of Patient Care Services and the nursing Shared Decision Making structure. ï‚ § Serves as the portal for other departments or disciplines requiring assistance with the Shared Decision Making structure of nursing. Problem Solving The Old Way †¢ Problem identified by staff and communicated to manager †¢ Manager may or may not have asked for feedback about solutions †¢ Manager made final decision or had final authority for approving a solution Problem Solving The New Way †¢ Staff identify issues and communicate them to the unit council †¢ Unit council formulates a response and communicates this to staff †¢ Staff provide feedback via the comment form. How Does The New Way Work †¢ Unit Council: ï‚ § Collects Data ï‚ § Develops a proposed plan using evidenced based practice ï‚ § Develops a time line ï‚ § Presents Plan for Feedback (Open Comment) ï‚ § Revises Plan Based Upon Feedback ï‚ § Forewards plan to system council, as needed How Does The New Way Work †¢ Unit Council: ï‚ § ï‚ § ï‚ § ï‚ § Implements Plan Evaluates Outcome Report Results to Unit Staff Seeks staff feedback, formally and informally on council’s performance How Does It Work – Problem Solving Methodology †¢ Identify an Issue or a Problem †¢ Gather Data †¢ Design a Solution †¢ Obtain Feedback †¢ Finalize a Proposal †¢ Implement †¢ Evaluate †¢ Report Increased Incidence of Pressure Sores Problem Unit Problem: Unit Council Problem Solving Model Results: Positive Outcomes System Level Practice Research Problem Coordinating Operations Education Problem Solving Model Results: Positive Outcomes Nurse Manager’s Role †¢ Create a climate that is actively supportive and not just tolerant of shared decision making †¢ Facilitate a leaning environment for staff growth and comfort with shared decision making †¢ Support â€Å"release time† for staff to participate in shared decision making activities Nurse Manager’s Role †¢ Share with staff your knowledge of leadership and help staff to minimize implementation barriers †¢ Commit to the â€Å"New Way† Role of Unit Based Council Chair †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Set meetings Develop the agenda Move council to consensus Ensure members participate (per charter) Facilitate group assignments Ensure consensus for decision making Call emergency meetings, as needed Mentor Chair-elect Benefits of Shared Decision Making †¢ Increased Staff Nurse Satisfaction (increased autonomy, increased control over practice, improved communication between nurses, physicians and administration) †¢ Improved Nursing Retention ($90,000 to replace an RN – 2006 Advisory Board) †¢ Improved Patient Safety Outcomes Benefits of Shared Decision Making †¢ Improved collaboration and team Building †¢ Improved quality of care and clinical effectiveness †¢ Increased staff confidence, personal and professional growth †¢ Development of new knowledge and skills †¢ Increased professionalism and accountability Requirements for success†¦. †¢ Place the Patient First and focus on providing the best care possible †¢ Trust and respect is essential †¢ Communicate openly and honestly †¢ Embrace change and strive for improvement †¢ Staff and managers hold each other accountable. †¢ Organizational support of accountability in the performance appraisal process Final Thought Shared decision making is a journey, not an event. It is not achieved overnight, and there is no conclusion – no point when it is fully in place. It only provides a foundation for further growth. Tim Porter-O’Grady

Understanding Different Types of Colleges

Understanding Different Types of Colleges Colleges and universities in the United State can be divided into two categories: four-year colleges and two-year colleges. Within those categories, there are a variety of subdivisions and distinctions between schools. The following article explains the differences between types of colleges to help you make the best decision when considering your higher education options.   Key Takeaways Colleges and universities can be divided into two-year institutions and four-year institutions.Four-year institutions include public and private colleges and universities as well as liberal arts colleges.Two-year institutions include community colleges, trade schools, and for-profit universities.Other institutional distinctions include Historically Black Colleges and Universities, women’s colleges, and Tribal Colleges and Universities.   Four-Year Colleges A four-year college is an institution of higher learning that provides programs of study that take approximately four academic years to complete. Students that complete these programs earn bachelor’s degrees. Four-year colleges are the most common institutions of higher education in the United States. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), undergraduate enrollment in four-year colleges is 65 percent, nearly 11 million students. These institutions often include strong student communities, complete with sports teams and extracurricular activities, students clubs and organizations, student body leadership, on-campus housing opportunities, Greek life, and more.  Harvard University, University of Michigan, Carroll College, and Bates College are all examples of four-year institutions, though they are all different types of colleges.   Public vs. Private Public colleges and universities are owned and operated by the state board of education within the state where the college is located. Funding for public institutions comes from state and federal taxes, as well as student tuition and fees, and private donors. Boise State University and the University of California are examples of public universities. Private institutions are owned and operated by individuals or organizations and do not receive federal or state funding. Private institutions often receive funding from alumni and corporate and individual donations. Though private institutions are not operated by the state in which they are located, they must still meet state and federal criteria in order to be accredited academic institutions. Yale University and Notre Dame University are examples of private universities. College vs. University   Traditionally, a college was a small, often private institution that only offered undergraduate programs, while universities were larger institutions that offered undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral degrees. Since these two terms have been commonly used to describe four-year institutions- and many small colleges began offering graduate and doctoral degree programs- the terms college and university are now completely interchangeable.  Ã‚   Liberal Arts Colleges Liberal arts colleges are four-year institutions that focus on the liberal arts: humanities, social and physical sciences, and mathematics. Liberal arts colleges are often small, private institutions with higher tuition rates and lower student-to-teacher ratios. Students at liberal arts colleges are encouraged to engage in interdisciplinary academia. Swarthmore College and Middlebury College are examples of liberal arts colleges.   Two-Year Colleges Two-year colleges provide lower-level higher education, commonly known as continuing education. Students that complete programs at two-year institutions can receive certifications or associates degrees. Hudson County Community College, Fox Valley Technical College, and the University of Phoenix are different examples of two-year institutions. Approximately 35 percent of undergraduates are enrolled in two-year institutions, according to the NCES. Many students choose to enroll in two-year institutions to obtain associate’s (or two-year) degrees before attending a bigger, often more expensive four-year institution to obtain a bachelor’s degree.  This cuts down on the cost of general education requirements, making college more achievable for many students. Other undergraduates enroll in two-year programs because they provide job-specific training and a direct pathway to a career.  Ã‚   Community Colleges Sometimes called junior college, community colleges offer higher education opportunities within communities. These courses are often geared toward working professionals, with classes offered outside of regular working hours. Students often use community colleges to gain job-specific certifications or as affordable stepping stones for completing bachelor’s degrees. Western Wyoming Community College and Odessa College are examples of community or junior colleges.   Trade Schools Also called vocational schools or technical colleges, trade schools provide technical skills for specific careers. Students that complete trade school programs can move directly into the workforce with ease. Students at trade schools often become dental hygienists, electricians, plumbers, computer technicians, and more. North Central Kansas Technical College and the State Technical College of Missouri are both examples of trade schools. For-Profit Schools For-profit colleges are educational institutions that are privately owned and operated. They run like a business, selling education as the product. For-profit schools can provide bachelor’s and master’s degrees, as well as technical education, though these programs are often offered online or via distance learning. According to the NCES, enrollment in for-profit institutions has increased by 109 percent since 2000, though that number has been declining since the financial crisis in 2007.   Other Types of Colleges Schools either fall into the two or four-year college categories, but there are a variety of other distinctions between colleges that make the campuses stand out. Historically Black Colleges and Universities Historically Black College and Universities, or HBCUs, are educational institutions founded before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 with the goal of providing higher education to African-American students. There are 101 HBCUs in the United States, both private and public. HBCUs admit students of all ethnicities. Howard University and Morehouse College are examples of HBCUs. Women’s Colleges Women’s colleges are education institutions founded to provide single-sex education for women; these institutions only admit female students. Traditionally, women’s colleges prepared women for assigned societal roles, such as teaching, but they evolved into degree-granting academic institutions after World War II. There are 38 women’s colleges in the United States. Bryn Mawr College and Wesleyan College are examples of women’s colleges. Tribal Colleges and Universities Tribal Colleges and Universities are accredited educational institutions that provide undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral degrees as well as vocational training to both Native and non-Native students with curricula designed to pass on tribal history and culture. These institutions are operated by Native American tribes and are located on or near reservations. There are 32 accredited Tribal Colleges and Universities operating in the United States.  Oglala Lakota College and Sitting Bull College are examples of tribal colleges. Sources   Fain, Paul. â€Å"Enrollment Slide Continues, at Slower Rate .†Ã‚  Inside Higher Ed  , 20 Dec. 2017.â€Å"More Than 76 Million Students Enrolled in U.S. Schools.†Ã‚  Census.gov, U.S. Census Bureau, 11 Dec. 2018.â€Å"Undergraduate Enrollment .†Ã‚  The Condition of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, May 2019.